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MANUAL LATIN GRAMMAR. 



MANUAL 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



PREPARED BY 



WILLIAM F. ALLEN, A.M., 

PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT LANGUAGES AND HISTORY IN THE 
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN ; 



JOSEPH H. ALLEN, 

CAMBRIDGE, MASS. 



BOSTON: 

PUBLISHED BY EDWIN GINN". 
WOOLWORTH, AI'NS WORTH, & CO. 

1868. 



rh 






K s 



j *., 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by 

J. H. AND W. F. ALLEN, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for 
the District of Massachusetts. 



By toamotor fr#n 

Pat. Otto* JUb. 

▲*rft 1014. 



CAMBRIDGE: 
PRESS OF JOHN WILSON AND SON. 



[From President Hill, of Harvard University.] 

Cambridge, Aug. 7, 1868. 
Rev. Joseph H. Allen. 

Dear Sir, — Of the details of your " Latin Grammar," I am 
not a competent judge ; but the general plan and general execu- 
tion I feel free to commend very warmly. The book seems to me < 
to contain all that is necessary for those who do not pursue Latin 
beyond their Freshman year ;*and to contain it in so brief a form, 
as to give reasonable hope that a boy may become familiar with it 
without either overstraining 'his memory, or becoming disgusted 
with the quantity imposed on him. It is a great error to expand 
a text-book beyond the dimensions necessary for a clear statement 
of the subject. Yery respectfully yours, 

THOMAS HILL. 



[From Prof. Bowen, of Harvard University.] 

Harvard College, Aug. 26, 1868. 

Dear Sir, — Though it is not for me to speak with authority 
on such a subject, I believe that the publication of your " Manual 
Latin Grammar" will be of great service to the cause of classical 
studies in this country. By careful selection, arrangement, and 
condensation, in little more than one hundred pages of distinct and 
open type, you have endeavored to present all the grammatical 
forms and principles which the pupil, whether schoolboy or under- 
graduate, needs to commit to memory, and nothing more than he 
so needs, in order to read, understand, and appreciate any Latin 
classic ; and I think you have succeeded. At any rate, whatever- 
else of grammatical science the pupil ought to possess may be 
most profitably learned in the class-room, from the lips of his 
instructor, who will want for occasional reference some more com- 
prehensive work. A big grammar is necessarily a big evil, and 
ought to be kept out of the hands of the learner, for it tends only 
to dishearten him and give him a disgust for his task. It is usually 
a wilderness of words, a heterogeneous mass of anomalies, techni- 
calities, and theoretical refinements, often of questionable correct- 
ness, and generally ill-arranged, ill-expressed, and ill-pointed. 
Your book evidently has great merits ; it seems to me a master- 
piece of brevity, method, and clearness. For the use of schools 
and colleges in this country, I hope it will supersede every larger 
work, and only be superseded should one be published hereafter 
equally concise, and still more lucid, methodical, and trustworthy. 
It will then probably have had a long term of service. 

Yery truly yours, 

FRANCIS BO WEN. 



An introductory book of exercises, to be used in 
connection with the grammar is in preparation, and 
may be expected within a year. At present, instruc- 
tors who may adopt this manual for beginners, are 
advised to use the Latin Reader, adapting references 
to this grammar, as any skilful teacher can easily do. 

The following corrections required to be made in 

early copies of this book : 

* Page 11, line 12, for io read is. 
Page 75, line 16, for 40 read 42. 



ERRATA. 




Page 11, line 7, 


add pi. ace. 


lampadas. 


„ 11, „ 12, 


for io 


read is. 


„ 14, „ 22, 


,, liberas 


, , liberae 


„ 25, „ 18, 


20, „ 65 


59. 


,, 58, ,, 15, 


,, fecit 


, , facit. 


„ 75, ,, 16, 


„ 40 


„ 42. 


„ 99, „ 21, 


,, VIII. 


,, x. 


„ 108, „ 26, 


add fax (facis 


)• 



PREFACE. 



Many of the best friends of classical education have 
long desired a manual of elementary instruction in 
Latin grammar, — which lies at the foundation of a 
classical course, — full and accurate enough to be 
a practical guide to the learner, but avoiding the 
prodigious multiplication of details, which have so 
overgrown that study in our ordinary school text- 
books. 

In attempting to meet this want, we have been 
guided by the following principles : — 

1. To admit only what is likely to be really useful 
information to the learner, and nothing which he will 
be likely to look for in the dictionary first. 

2. To avoid, as far as possible, all subtilties of theory 
and technicalities of phrase ; and to illustrate every 
point, as it is stated, by examples in correct Latin, uni- 
formly rendered into the corresponding English idiom. 

3. To aid the eye, by the typography and arrange- 
ment of the page, so as to make it an easy manual of 
reference. Every Latin word we have used is printed 



Ylll PREFACE. 

in a special type, cast expressly for this book, and is 
followed immediately (except in the section on Pros- 
ody), by its English equivalent, italicized. The quan- 
tities of roots and inflections are abundantly given 
throughout. In orthography, we have followed the 
most approved editions of the present day, adopting a 
few forms which may possibly be regarded as innova- 
tions, but varying less than some might desire from 
the past usage of our text-books. 

In the classification and arrangement of paradigms 
we have expended a great deal of care. The classifi- 
cation of Nouns of the Third Declension, — which is 
based partly on that of Key, — seems to us to have 
great advantages over that commonly adopted. The 
exhibition of the Verb-forms will be found not only a 
material help to the learner by its compactness, clear- 
ness, and easiness of reference ; but to have the spe- 
cial benefit of keeping distinctly in view the point 
(which teachers so often fail to make familiar) that 
all irregularities, or peculiarities of conjugation, are 
confined to the forms from the first or Present stem, 
while the others follow one uniform model through- 
out. 

This volume is not, in any sense, an abridgment or 
compilation from previous writers. Except in some 
details of Prosody, we have not been directly indebted 
to any of those in use in our schools. Our plan has 
grown from our own wants and experience ; and the 
examples have been selected, in general, from our 



PREFACE. IX 

own reading. Only in a few instances, where it 
seemed desirable for completeness, we have not hesita- 
ted to borrow them from other sources. 

While we have omitted a great amount of matter 
which we think serves in many text-books merely to 
obscure to the learner the outlines of the language, it* 
will be found that its leading forms and usages are 
very fully exhibited ; at the same time much incidental 
illustration is given, not contained in any other school 
grammar within our knowledge. A book designed for 
reference, as a full treatise on etymology and syntax, 
very properly contains much material which would be 
out of place in a brief manual like the present. We do 
not believe that it is best for the learner to begin with 
as large a book as he may require afterwards ; and 
besides, if principles are to be taught, and not dead 
rules, it is a clear advantage not to become wedded to 
any set form of words. 

Two or three points seem to require brief explana- 
tion to teachers who have been in the habit of using 
the ordinary text-books. 

First, the recognition of the Locative Case, which has 
been sometimes called the " Dative of Place." The 
fact we wish to recognize in the structure of the lan- 
guage is one which all grammarians admit ; and to 
accept it will be to many persons a real relief from the 
old arbitrary and unintelligible rule. 

In interpreting the Subjunctive, we have thought 
best to give it no separate translation in the paradigms. 



X PREFACE. 

To render it, as is often done, by the English Potential, 
is as misleading as any false step, so low down among 
the elements, can well be. We have accordingly illus- 
trated its use, at the outset, by a score of select ex- 
amples of Latin idiom ; and trust in the Syntax to have 
made it as clear as is consistent with the brevity of 
our plan. 

In simplifying the treatment of the Gerund and 
Gerundive, we have followed the best English authori- 
ties, from Milton's brief Latin " Accedence," to the 
works of Donaldson, Key, and D'Arcy Thompson. The 
phrase " Nominative of the Gerund," which we have 
employed, is easily understood ; it suggests an explana- 
tion of the subject which many scholars prefer to that 
usually given ; and it need not be taken as controvert- 
ing the more common doctrine, that the form in ques- 
tion is the Neuter of the Future Passive Participle, 
used impersonally. 

The Syntax of the Moods will be found relatively 
more full than other parts of the book ; this we have 
thought warranted by the difficulty and peculiar obscu- 
rity of the subject. In general, we have not, as is 
usually done, treated the Subjunctive by itself; but 
have classified the usages in the different kinds of 
subordinate clauses, in nearly all of which either 
that or the Indicative may be employed in special rela- 
tions. Here, as everywhere, we have derived constant 
assistance from Madvig's "Lateinische Sprachlehre," 
the best single treatise upon Latin grammar with 



PREFACE. XI 

which we are acquainted : from this we have taken 
more special points than from all other sources com- 
bined. We are far from claiming an entirely satisfac- 
tory treatment of the Subjunctive, which indeed has 
never yet been adequately analyzed, and which is much 
more difficult in Latin than in Greek. Conditional 
Sentences, however, in which we have followed the doc- 
trine of Goodwin's " Greek Moods and Tenses," we 
believe will be found nowhere more fully explained 
than here. 

In the matter of Prosody, we have given enough to 
enable the student to analyze for himself, and to read 
easily into metre, all the forms of verse in Virgil, Ovid, 
Horace, and (excepting a few lyrical passages) in the 
Dramatic writers. For instruction in the difficult art 
of composition in Latin verse, — should that be thought 
desirable, — or for exhibitions of quantity complete 
enough to be a sufficient guide in it, the learner must 
go to other sources. 

In many points, both of etymology and syntax, we 
have availed ourselves of the counsel and guidance of 
Professor Lane, of Harvard University; who has 
greatly aided us by his care in examining the earlier 
proof-sheets, and by the suggestions of his very exact 
and thorough scholarship. In points of practical adap- 
tation to the wants of classes, the long experience of 
our brother, Rev. T. P. Allen, of West Newton, Mass., 
has been a valuable guide. In the preparation of the 
Syntax, we are under especial obligation to Professor 



xii PREFACE. 

J. B. Feuling, of the University of Wisconsin, who 
kindly read over the whole manuscript of this portion, 
and made many valuable suggestions. 

In addition we would say, that, while this is intended 
to be a sufficient text-book for the learner, — at least 
until some more copious systematic treatise is required 
during a college course, — it is not claimed to be 
sufficient for the teacher. For his daily use in the 
class-room, as well as for his own more accurate 
information, he needs the ampler material so indus- 
triously gathered in the many excellent manuals in 
use. But, for ever so short a course in classical 
instruction, we hold that the language itself, and the 
literature which contains it, is the real object of study ; 
and that every hour spent on the details of grammar, 
which does not directly help to this, is an injury to the 
student's progress, and a wrong to his intelligence. 

Finally, this book is not meant for children. For 
most learners, we think, it would be better to wait till 
at least thirteen or fourteen, before attempting the sys- 
tematic study of so difficult a tongue. At that age, 
an intelligent boy or girl, who studies it at all, ought 
to be led at once to those forms of it which can be 
readily understood and enjoyed. 

Cambridge, Massachusetts. 

August, 1868. 



CONTENTS. 



PART L — FORMS OF WORDS. (ETYMOLOGY.) 

Sect. Page 

1. Alphabet 1 

2. Pronunciation 2 

3. Quantity , 2 

4. Accent 3 

5. Inflection 3 

6. Gender 4 

7. Case . . 4 

8. Declension 5 



Nouns. 

9. First Declension 6 

10. Second Declension ; 7 

11. Third Declension. I. Vowel Stems 8 

II. Liquid Stems - 9 

III. Mute Stems 9 

IY. General Rules 11 

12. Fourth Declension 11 

13. Fifth Declension .12 

14. Irregular Nouns. I. Defective 12 

II. Variable . . . 13 

15. Proper Names . 13 



XIV CONTENTS. 

sect. Adjectives. Pa8e 

16. Inflection. I. First and Second Declension .... 14 

II. Third Declension 15 

17. Comparison 15 

18. Numerals. I. Cardinal and Ordinal ........ 18 

II. Distributive 19 

Pronouns. 

19. Personal and Reflective 20 

20. Demonstrative . . - 21 

21. Relative 22 

22. Correlatives 23 

Verbs. 

23. Structure 24 

24. Moods 24 

25. Participles 26 

26. Gerund and Supine 27 

27. Tenses 28 

28. Personal Endings 30 

29. Esse . . . 30 

abesse, adesse, posse, prodesse 32 

30. Conjugation 32 

31. Active Voice 34 

32. Passive Voice 36 

33. Rules of Conjugation 38 

34. Forms of Conjugation '.:... 38 

35. Deponent Verbs 40 

36. Derivative Verbs 41 

37. Irregular Verbs .41 

volo, nolo, malo 41 

fero, edo, eo, facio, queo 42 

38. Defective Verbs, coepi, aio, inquam, fari, salve, &c. . 43 

39. Impersonal Verbs 43 

40. Periphrastic Forms . 44 

41. Adverbs 44 

42. Prepositions 46 

43. Conjunctions 47 

44. Formation of Words 50 



CONTENTS. XV 



PART IL — USE OF WORDS. (SYNTAX.) 

Sect. Page 

45. Definitions 53 

I. Rules of Agreement. 

46. Of Nouns 53 

47. Of Adjectives 54 

48. Of Relatives 57 

49. Of Verbs 58 

II. Rules of Government. 

50. Genitive 59 

51. Dative 63 

52. Accusative ^Q 

53. Vocative 68 

54. Ablative 69 

55. Time and Place 73 

56. Prepositions 75 

III. Syntax of the Verb. 

57. Sequence of Tenses 77 

58. Moods 80 

59. Conditional Sentences 81 

60. Implied Conditions 84 

61. Conditional Particles 85 

62. Relations of Time 86 

63. Cause or Reason 87 

64. Purpose 88 

65. Consequence or Result 89 

66. Intermediate Clauses 90 

67. Oratio Obliqua .91 

68. Wishes and Commands 95 

69. Subjunctive with Relatives 96 

70. Substantive Clauses 96 

71. Questions 98 

72. Participles 99 

73. Gerund and Gerundive 99 

74. Supine. 101 

75. General Rules of Syntax . 102 

76. Arrangement 103 



XVI CONTENTS. 



PART III. — RULES OF VERSE. (PROSODY.) 

Sect. Page 

77. Rhythm 105 

78. Quantity. I. General Rules 105 

II. Final Syllables ......... 10G 

III. Penultimate Syllables 108 

79. Feet Ill 

80. Scanning 113 

81. Metre 114 

82. Forms of Yerse 115 



83. Reckoning of Time 119 

84. Reckoning of Money 119 

85. Roman Prasnomens 120 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



PART FIRST. 

FORMS OF WORDS. (ETYMOLOGY.) 



1. Alphabet. 

The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, 
wanting W. 

Vowels are a, e, i, 0, u, y. Diphthongs are ae, oe (often 
written 86, oe), au, en, and in poetry ei and ui. 

Mute Consonants are p, b, f, V (labial) ; t, d (dental) ; 
C (k,) g (palatal). Liquids are 1, m, n, r. Double Conso- 
nants are x (cs), z (ds). 

The Aspirate, h, is merely a silent breathing, and is not 
reckoned as a Consonant. 

The Roman Alphabet consisted of 21 letters, viz., 

a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, x. 

y and z were added, in words derived from Greek. 

i and u, when used as consonants (having the sound of y and 
w), are generally written j and v; as, juvenis, a youtli, for 
iuuenis. 

k is used only in a few words, generally at the beginning, and 
is always followed by a. 

c is usually written for k ; and often for qu, (regularly when 
followed by u) : as in cum (for quum) wlien ; secutus (for 
sequutus) having followed ; and more rarely, in ecus (for 
equus) a horse, cotidie (for quotidie) daily, and others. 

1 



1 PRONUNCIATION. QUANTITY. §§ 2, 3 

In early use, u never follows u (v), but o instead : as in volt, 
will. Often, i is put for ii, or ji, as in obit, died; obicit, hits. Ex- 
amples of variation in spelling are, -undus or -eudus in gerund 
forms ; -umus or imus in superlatives ; adulescens, youth, epistu- 
la, letter, for adolescens, epistola ; cena, caena, coena, supper. 

The last letter of the Prepositions ab, ad, con (cum), ex, in 
and sub, when combined with other words, is often altered to give 
an evener sound : as ad- or al-latus, brought, in- or im-mensus, 
boundless ; sub- or suf-fero, sustain. 

The verb est, is, is sometimes joined in spelling with the 
previous word, especially in the old poets, or when the two would 
be united by elision : as homost, he is a man, periculumst, there 
is danger.. So vin', loilt ? scin', know'st? for visne, scisne. 

In the division of syllables, a consonant between two vowels 
is always written with the latter ; as do-mi-nus, master : also, any 
combination of consonants which can be used to begin a word ; as 
ho-spes, guest ; ma-gnus, great ; a-strum, star ; di-xit, said. 

2. Pronunciation. 

Among us, Latin is generally pronounced like English. 
But there are no- silent letters, except in scanning verse, by 
the usage called elision. 

C and g are made soft before e, i, y, and the diphthongs ae, 
eu, oe, ; ch is always like k ; es and (in plural cases) OS, are 
pronounced as in disease, morose. 

The Roman pronunciation of the Vowels was no doubt like the 
Italian. In English, for the long and short vowels respectively, it 
may be nearly represented thus : — 

a as in father, fast ; e as in rein, met ; i as in machine, fill ; o as 
in holy, wholly ; u as in rude, full. 

c and g were probably always sounded hard. 

3. Quantity. 

1. A vowel before another vowel is short ; as, Via, way. 

2. A diphthong is long ; as, foedus, league. 

3. A syllable formed by contraction is long; as, nil, 
nothing, for nihil. 



§§ 4, 5 ACCENT. — INFLECTION. 3 

4. A vowel before two consonants or a double consonant 
is long, as rectus, straight, judex, juror: but a short vowel 
before a mute followed by 1 or r, is common, as in volucris, 
bird; that is, it may be long in verse. 

The sign ~ denotes that a vowel is long ; ~ that it is short. 
A short vowel differs from a long one not in sound but in 
length ; as in pater, father, mater, mother. 

4. Accent. 

Words of two syllables are always accented on the 
Penult ; as, e'rant, they were. 

Words of more than two syllables are accented on the 
Penult, if that is long ; as, ami r cus, friend : if it is short, or 
common, then on the Antepenult; as, dom/mus, master; 
al'acris, eager. 

The Penult is the last syllable but one ; the Antepenult, the 
last but two (paene, almost ; ultima, last.) 

5. Inflection. 

1. Inflection is a change made in the ending of a word to 
express some change in meaning; as, VOC 0, I call ; VOC at, 
he calls. 

2. That part of the word which remains unchanged is 
called the Root or Stem. When a primitive form, common 
to Latin with other languages, it is always called the Root : 
thus the root of fug a, flight, is found in the English fug- 
itive. 

3. In Latin, Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Participles, are 
inflected to express Declension (gender, number, and case) ; 
Adjectives and Adverbs to express Comparison ; Verbs to ex- 
press Conjugation (voice, mood, tense, number, and person). 

4. Those parts of speech which are not inflected are called 
Particles : they are, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjec- 
tions. Adverbs, especially those of time, place, and manner, 
are also sometimes reckoned as Particles. 



GENDER. — CASE. § 6, 7 



6. Gender. 

1. Gender may be either natural, as puer, boy ; puella, 
girl; malum, apple: or grammatical, as lapis, stone (masc.) ; 
mantis, hand (fern.). 

2. The following are general rules of gender : — 

Names of Rivers (except a few ending in a) are masculine : as, 
Tamesis, the Thames; Rhodanus, the Rhone. 

Most names of Plants are feminine : as, cornus, cornel. 

Indeclinable nouns, or Phrases used as nouns, are neuter ; as, 
illud Cassianum, "Cui bono fuerit," that saying of Cassius, 
" For whose advantage it was." 

3. Many Nouns may be either masculine or feminine, ac- 
cording to sex ; as, exsul, exile ; bos, ox, cow. They are said 
to be of Common Gender. 

4. A few are always connected with adjectives in the same 
gender, either masculine or feminine, independent of sex ; 
thus, anser, goose, is always masculine, and vulpes, fox, 
feminine. They are called Epicene. 

« 

7. Case. 

There are in Latin six- Cases ; namely, — 

1. Nominative, used as the s^ect of a direct proposition : as, 
pater meus adest, my father is here. 

2. Genitive (of), generally denoting origin or possession; 
also used with many adjectives and verbs, especially those express- 
ing emotion : as, 

patris ejus amicus miseretur mei, his father's friend pities me. 

3. Dative (to or for), generally used for the indirect object 
after a verb or adjective : as, 

dedit mihi ensem : magno mini usui erat ; he gave me a sword: 
it ivas of great service to me. 

4. Accusative (towards), used as the direct object of a verb, 
and after most prepositions : as, 

dum agrum arabat in hortum vem, while he was ploughing the 
field I came into the garden. 



§ 8 DECLENSION. 5 

5. Vocative, used in direct address : as, 

hue vein care mi filiole, come hither my dear little son, 

6. Ablative (by, from, ivith), used with many verbs and pre- 
positions : as, 

in horto ludebamus et cultello me laesit, we were playing in 
the garden and he hurt me with a knife. 

All, excepting the nominative and vocative, are often called 
Oblique cases. 

7. Some grammarians reckon also a Locative case, signifying 
the place where : it is generally the same in form with the Dative, 
and may be called the Dative of Place : as, 

Romae vel Athenis esse velim, I should like to be at Rome or 
Athens. 

8. Declension. 

I. There are five Declensions of nouns in Latin, distin- 
guished by the termination of the Genitive Singular, and by 
their characteristic or leading vowel. These are as fol- 
lows : — 

Decl. 1. Gen. Sing, ae, Leading Vowel a 

„ o 

t> >j * 

„ u 

»» e 

II. The following are general rules of declension : — 

1. The vocative is always the same in form with the nomina- 
tive, except in the singular of nouns in us, of the second declen- 
sion. 

2. In Neuters, the nominative and accusative are always alike, 
and in the plural end in a. 

3. Except in neuters, the accusative singular always ends in 
m, and the accusative plural in s. 

4. In the most ancient form, the dative singular of all the 
declensions ends in I; in the third declension, the locative case 
may end in e or I. 

5. The dative and ablative plural are always alike. 

6. The genitive plural always ends in um. 



2. 


? > 


1 


3. 


>> 


is 


4. 


5» 


us 


5. 


>» 


ei 



NOUNS. — FIRST DECLENSION. 



§9 



NOUNS. 



9. First Declension, (a.) 





singular. 




Nominative. 


stell a, 


a star. 


Genitive. 


stell ae, 


of a star. 


Dative. 


stell ae, 


to a star. 


Accusative. 


stell am, 


a star. 


Vocative. 


stell a, 


thou star ! 


Ablative. 


stell a, 

PLURAL. 


with a star, 


Nominative. 


stell ae, 


stars. 


Genitive. 


stell arum, 


of stars. 


Dative. 


stell is, 


to stars. 


Accusative. 


stell as, 


stars. 


Vocative. 


stell ae, 


ye stars ! 


Ablative. 


stell is, 


with stars. 



1. Most nouns of the first declension are feminine. 

2. The genitive and dative singular anciently ended in ai, 
which is occasionally found in a few words, as, aulai, of a hall. 
There is also an old genitive in as, found in paterfamilias. 

3. The genitive plural, especially of compounds with cola and 
gena, signifying dwelling and descent, is sometimes contracted into 
um, as coelicolum, of the heavenly ones. 

4. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, 
daughter, and a few others, end in the old regular form abus. 

5. Some Greek nouns end in as, es (masc), and e (fern.) in 
the nominative, and n in the accusative ; those in e have the 
genitive in es : as, Aeneas, ace. Aenean, voc. Aenea ; Anchises, 
gen. Anchisae, ace. Anchisen, voc. Anchise; Penelope, Pene- 
lopes, Penelopen ; grammatice or grammatlca, grammar. 



; 10 SECOND DECLENSION. 



10. Second Declension, (o.) 
Most nouns of the second declension ending in us (os), 
er, ir, are masculine ; those ending in M (on) are neuter. 



Man. 



SINGULAR. 
Book. BUxoe. War. 



Norn vir' liber servile (os) bellum 

Gen. viri libri ^rvi belli 

Dat. viro libr5 servo bello 

Ace. vir urn librum servum bell urn 

Voc. vir liber serve bell urn 

Abl. viro libro servo bello 

PLURAL. 

NTom. viri libri servi bell a 

Gen. virorum librorum servorum bell oriini 

Dat. vir is libris serv is bello 

Ace. vir os libros . servos bell a 

Voc. viri libri servi bell a 

Abl. vir is libris serv is bell is 

1. Some Greek words end in 6s (m.) or on (n.) ; as, arctos, 
the Polar Bear ; barbiton, lyre. The old form 6s, on, for iis, urn, 
after u or v, as in serv6s, and the gen. pi. on, are sometimes found. 

2. Names of towns in us (os) are feminine : as, Corinthus. 

3. The old form of the gen. sing, in ius (oius) and dative in i 
(oi) is found in a few adjectives (see §16, i). The locative sin- 
gular ends in i : as, Corinthi, at Corinth. 

4. The genitive of nouns in ius and ium is often written with 
a single i: as fill, of a son, ingg'ni, of genius. 

5. Proper names in ius drop e in the vocative; as, Vergilius, 
voc. VergiTi: also films, son, and genius, divine guardian. 

6. In the gen. plur. orum is often contracted into urn or 6m. 

7. Deus, God, has voc. deus; plural, n. v. dei, dii, or di; 
dat. abl. deis, diis, dis. For the genitive plural, divum or 
divom is often used. 

8. Nouns in er generally drop e in declining, as in ager, agri, 
field : but retain it in piier, boy ; gener, son-in-laio ; socer, 
father-in-law ; vesper, evening ; and a few others. 

9. Vulgus, mob ; pelagiis, sea ; and virus, poison, are neuter. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§11 



11. Third Declension. 

Nouns of the third declension are classed according to 
their stems, whether ending in a Vowel, a Liquid, or a Mute 
Consonant. 







I. Vowel Stems, (i.) 








Ship (v.) 


Cloud (f.) 


Sea (n.) 


Sing, 


.ST. 


navis 


nubes 


mare 




G. 


navis 


nub is 


maris 




D. 


navi 


nubi 


mari 




Ac. 


nav em (lm) 


nub em 


mare 




V. 


navis 


nub es 


mare 




Ab. 


nave (i) 


nube 


mari 


Plu. 


N. 


naves 


nub es 


maria 




G. 


nav ium 


nub ium 


mar ium 




D. 


nav ibus 


nub ibus 


mar ibus 




Ac. 


nav es (is) 


nubes (is) 


maria 




V. 


naves 


nubes 


maria 




Ab. 


nav lb iis. 


nub ibus 


mar ibus 



1. A few nouns in al and ar are properly neuters of adjec- 
tives in alis, (omitting the final e), and belong to this class. 
They are declined like mare: as, animal, alis, pi. animalia, 
living thing (from anima, breath) ; calcar, aris, spur (from calx, 
heel) . 

2. The old forms of sing. ace. in lm, and abl. in i, and of the 
plur. ace. in is, are found in many words. In Adjectives of this 
form the nom. sing, is and abl. i are always used. 

3. Several names of towns, as Praeneste, Caere, and the moun- 
tain Soracte (n.), have the ablative e. Sometimes, also, mare, 
sea, and rete, net. 

4. A few nouns, as canis, dog, juvenis, youth, have the gen- 
itive plural in urn, 

5. Vis, force, has ace. vim, abl. vi, plur. vires, virium, 
viribus. 

6. Greek proper names in is have ace. im, and voc. i; as, 
Alexis, Alexim, Alexi. 



§11 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



II. Liquid Stems. (1, n, r.) 



Sin. K V. 
G. 
D. 

Ac. 
Ab. 



Pl. 



N.A.V. 

G. 

D.Ab. 



Sin. N. V. 
G. 
D. 

Ac. 

Ab. 

Pl. N. A.V. nomin 
G. 
D. Ab 



Exile (m.f.) 
exsiil 
exsul 13 
exsul I 
exsul em 
exsul e 

exsul es 
exsul um 
exsul ib us 

Name (n.) 

nomen 

nomin is 

nomin I 

nomen 

nomin e 



R ink (m.) 
ordo 
ordin is 
ordin i 
ordin em 
ordin e 

ordin es 
ordin um 
ordin ibus 

Work (n.) 
opiis 
oper is 
operi 
opus 
oper e 



Honor (m.) 
honor (6s) 
honor is 
honor i 
honor em 
honor e 

honor es 
honor um 
honor ibus 

Body (n.) 
corpus 
corpor is 
corpor i 
corpus 
corpor e 



a 

nomin um 
nomin ibus 



oper a corpor a 

oper um corpor um 
oper ibus corpor ibus 



Father (m.) 
pater 
patr is 
patri 
patr em 
patr e 

patr es 
patr um 
patr ibus 

Leg (n.) 
crus 
crur is 
cruri 
crus 
crur e 

crura 
crur um 
crur ibus 



III. Mute Stems. 

Nouns whose stem ends in a Mute Consonant generally 
form the Nominative Singular by adding S. 

1. If the Mute is a Labial, (b, m, p,) s is added simply 
with or without change of vowel : as, 







City (f.) 


Chief '(m.) 


Winter (f.) 


Sin 


,n.y. 


urbs 


princeps 


hiems (ps) 




G. 


urbis 


princip is 


hiem is 




D. 


urbi 


princip i 


hieni i 




Ac. 


urb em 


princip em 


hiem em 




Ab. 


urb e 


princip e 


hieme 


Pl. 


N.A.V. 


urb es 


princip es 


hiem es 




G. 


urb ium 


princip um 


hiem um 




D.Ab. 


urb ibus 


princip ibus 


hiem ibus 



10 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§11 



2. If the Mute is a Dental (d, t), it is suppressed before 
S ; in Neuters, S is not added : as, 



Sin. N". Y. 
G. 
D. 
Ac. 

Ab. 



Stone (at.) 
lapis 
lapid 13 
lapid I 
lapid em 
lapid e 



Pl. N.A.Y. lapid es 
G. lapid uni 



Companion (at.) Heart (n.) Tooth (at.) 

comes cor dens 

comit is cord is dent is 

comit i cord i dent i 

comit em cor dent em 

comit e cord e dent e 

comit es cord a dent es 

comit urn dent ium 



D. Ab. lapid ibus comit ibus cordibus dentibus 

3. If the Mute is a Palatal (c, g), it is combined with 
in x : as, 





Nut{¥.) 


King (m.) 


Juror ( 


M.) 


Rower (m.) 


Sin. K Y. 


nux 


rex 


judes 




remex 


G. 


niic is 


regis 


judic is 


remig is 


D. 


nuc I 


regi 


judic 


i 


remig i 


Ac. 


nuc em 


reg em 


judic em 


remig em 


Ab. 


nuc e 


rege 


judic 


e 


remig e 


Pl. X.A.Y. 


nuc es 


reg es 


judic 


es 


remig es 


G. 


nuc um 


reg urn 


judic um 


remig um 


D. Ab. 


nuc ibus 


reg ibus judic 


ibus 


remig ibus 


4. Pecul 


tar forms are — * 










NUjlit ( f. ) Snow ( f ) Fksh ( f. ) 


Bone (n. 


Old Man, 


Sin. N. Y. 


nox 


nix 


caro 


6s 


senex 


G. 


noctis 


nivis 


carnis 


ossis 


senis 


b. 


nocti 


nivi 


carni 


ossi 


seni 


Ac. 


noctem 


nivem 


carnem 


OS 


senem 


Ab. 


nocte 


nive 


carne 


osse 


sene 


Pi, N.A.Y. 


noctes 


nives 


carnes 


ossa 


senes 


G. 


noctium 




carnium 


ossium senum 


D. Ab. 


noctibus 


nivibus 


carnibus ossibus senibus 



aer (m.), air, has the accusative aera. 

mel, lioney, and fel, gall (n.), have the gen. mellis, fellis. 

lac, (n.) milk, has gen. lactis. 



§12 FOURTH DECLENSION, 

o. Irregular forms are — 



11 



iter, itineris (n.), journey. 
jecur, jecoris or jecmoris (n.), liver. 

bos, bovis ; pi. g. bourn, D. bobus, bubus (m. f.), ox, 
cow. 

supellex, supellectilis (f.), furniture. 

lampas, lampados, or is, ace. lampada, lamp, (f.) 

Juppiter, Jovis. 

IV. General Rules of the Third Declension. 

Nouns' ending in 0, or, 08, er, and es (increasing) are 

masculine ; 
those in as, es (not increasing), io, ys, x, and s preceded 

by a consonant, also in do, go, io, are feminine ; 
those in a, e, i, y, c, 1, n, t, ar, ur, us, are neuter. 

A noun is said to increase, when in any case it has more sylla- 
bles than in the nominative singular. In such case, the penult 
is called the Increment of the noun. 

Increments of nouns in a and o (m. f.), are generally long; 
those in e, o (n.), i, u, and y, short. 

The locative case is sometimes written with e, especially in 
poetry: as, Karthagme (for Karthagini), at Carthage. 

Many nouns, especially those of one syllable, ending in two 
consonants or a double consonant, make the genitive plural in 
ium: as cliens, client ; urbs, city ; nox, night. 





12. 


Fourth Declension. 


(u.) 






Car (m.) 


Needle (f.) 


Knee (n.) 


Sin. 


, N. V. 


curriis 


aciis 


genu 




G. 


curr us 


acus 


genu (us) 




D. 


currui (u) 


acui 


genu 




Ac. 


curr um 


acum 


genu 




Ab. 


curr u 


acu 


genu 


Pl. 


1ST. A.Y. 


curr us 


acus 


genu a 




G. 


curr uum 


acuum 


genu um 




D.Ab. 


curr ibiis 


acu bus 


genu bus 



12 FIFTH DECLENSION. IRREGULAR NOUNS. §§13,14 

1. Most nouns of the fourth declension are formed from the 
supine stem of verbs : as, cantus, song, from cano ; visus, sight, 
from video. 

2. Domus, house, has ablative singular domo, genitive plural 
domoruni, or domuum ; accusative plural, domos : domi, less 
frequently domui, (locative) means at home, 

13. Fifth Declension, (e.) 

The only complete nouns of this declension are dies, day, 
and res, thing. They are thus declined : — 







Day{M.) 


Tiling (f.) 


Singular N. 


V. 


dies 


res 


G. 




diei 


rei 


D. 




diei 


rei 


Ac. 




diem 


rem 


Ab. 




die 


re 


Plural 1ST. A. V. 


dies 


res 


G. 




die rum 


re rum 


D. Ab. 




die bus 


rebus 



Most nouns of the fifth declension want the plural. 
Dies is often feminine in the singular in phrases indicating a 
fixed time : as constitute die, on the set day. 

The termination of the nominative singular is generally ies. 

14. Irregular Nouns. 
I. Defective. 

1 . Wanting the singular : as, 

llberi, children ; arma, weapons ; penates, household gods. 

2. Wanting the nominative : as, 

dapis, of food; frugis, of fruit (plural complete). 

3. Found only in one or two cases : as, 

fors, forte, chance; vicis (gen.), vicem, vice, vices, vicibus, 
change or turn ; sponte (sua sponte, of his own accord) ; 
injussu, ivithout orders. 

4. Indeclinable : as, 

fas, right ; ngfas, wrong ; pondo, pound. 



§15 PROPER NAMES. 13 

II. Variable. 

1. Many nouns vary in meaning as they are found in the 
singular or plural : as, 

aedes, is (f.), temple. aedes, ium, house. 

auxilium (n.), help. auxilia, auxiliaries. 

career (m.), dungeon. carceres, barriers (of a race- 

castrum (x.),fort. castra, camp. [course.) 

copia (w.), plenty. copiae, troops. 

finis (m.), end. fines, bounds, territory. 

gratia (v.), favor. gratiae, thanks. 

impedimentum (x.), hinderance. impedimenta, baggage. 

littera (f.), letter (of alphabet.) litterae, epistle. 

locus (m.), place [pi. loca (x.)] loci, passages in books. 

opis (f. gen.), help. opes, resources, wealth. 

plaga (f.), region [plaga, blow'], plagae, snares. 

sal (m. or x.), salt. sales, witticisms. 

sestertius (m.) means the sum of 2i asses, = about 4 cents. 

sestertium (x.) means the sum of 1000 sestertii, = about $40. 

decies sestertium means the sum of 1000 sestertia, = $40,000. 

2. Sometimes a noun in combination with an adjective takes a 
special signification, both parts being regularly inflected: as, 
jusjurandum, jurisjurandi, oath. 

respublica, reipublicae, commonwealth. 

15. Proper Names. 

A Roman had regularly three names. Thus, in the name 
Marcus Tullius Cicero, we have — 

Marcus, the praenomeii, or persoual name ; 

Tullius, the nomeil; i.e., name of the Gens, or house, whose 
original head was Tullus ; this name is an adjective ; 

Cicero, the cognomen, or family name, often in its origin 
a nickname, — in this case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea. 

Women had no personal names, but were known only by 
that of their gens. Thus the wife of Cicero was Terentia, 
and his daughter Tullia. A younger sister would have been 
called Tullia secunda, and so on. 



14 



ADJECTIVES. 



■ INFLECTION. 



?16 



ADJECTIVES. 



16. Inflection. 

Adjectives are declined like Nouns ; and are either of 
the First and Second Declension, or of the Third. 

I. Adjectives of the first and second declension are thus 
declined : — 





M. 


F. 


N. 


Sing. N. 


car us 


car a 


car urn, Dear. 


G. 


carl 


car ae 


carl 


D. 


caro 


carae 


caro 


Ac. 


car urn 


car am 


car um 


y. 


care 


car a 


carum 


Ab. 


car o 


car a 


caro 


Plur. K 


carl 


carae 


car a 


G. 


car orum 


car arum 


car orum 


D. 


carls 


car is 


car is 


Ac. 


car os 


car as 


car a 


V. 


carl 


carae 


car a 


Ab 


car is 


carls 


carls 



The singular of adjectives in er is thus declined : — 







Free. 






Black. 






M. 


F. 


N. 


M. 


F. 


N. 


N. 


liber 


libera 


liber um 


niger 


nigra 


nigrum 


G. 


liber i 


liber ae 


liber i 


nigri 


nig rae 


nigri 


D. 


liber o 


liber as 


liber o 


nigr o 


nig rae 


nigr o 


Ac. 


liber um 


liber am 


liber um 


nigrum 


nig ram 


nigr um 


V. 


liber 


liber a 


liber um 


niger 


nig ra 


nigr um 


Ab, 


, liber o 


liber a 


liber o 


niger 


nigra 


nigro 



(Plural like carus.) 



§17 COMPARISON. 15 

The following have the genitive singular in ius, and the dative 
in i, in all the genders : — 

alius, other. nullus, no. ullus, any (with negatives). 

alter, other {of two), solus, alone. unus, one. 

neuter, neither. totus, whole, uter, which (of two). 

II. Adjectives of the third declension are thus declined : — 









SINGULAR. 






Wise. 




Short. n. 


Better. x. 


K 


sapiens 




brevis, breve 


melior, melius 


G. 


sapientis 




brevis 


melior is 


D. 


sapienti 




brevi 


melior i 


Ac. 


sapientem, n. 


sapiens 


brevem, n. e 


meliorem, melius 


Ab. 


sapiente, 


or i 


brevi 


meliore or i 



PLURAL. 

N. Ac. sapientes, sapientia breves, n. ia meliores, n. ora 
G. sapientium brevium meliorum 

D. Ab. sapientibus bfevibus melioribus 

A few adjectives of this declension have the nom. sing. masc. 
in er: as, m. acer, f. acris, n. acre, keen. Otherwise they are 
declined like brevis. 

Adjectives of one termination include those in ns, with a few 
others : as, vetus, old ; par, equal ; felix, fortunate. They all have 
two forms in the accusative singular, and in the nom. ace. and voc. 
plural : as, parem, par ; pares, paria. 

17. Comparison. 
I. The Comparative degree adds ior, ius to the stem, and is 
declined as melior ; the Superlative adds issimus, a, urn, 
and is declined as cams. Thus : — 

car us, dear; car ior, dearer; car issimus, dearest. 

Adjectives in er form the superlative by adding rimus 
to the nominative : as, 
niger, black; nigrior, blacker; nigerrimus, blackest. 

Six adjectives, facilis, difficilis, easy, hard; similis, dissi- 
milis, like, unlike: gracilis, slender ; humilis, low, form the 
superlative by adding limus to the stem : as, facillimus. 



16 COMPARISON. §17 

Compounds ending in dlCUS, saying, ficus, doing, and 
volus, willing, are compared from the corresponding partici- 
ples in ns : as, 

maledicus, slanderous ; maledicentior, maledicentissimus. 

maleficus, mischievous ; maleficentior, malencentissimus. 

malevolus, spiteful ; malevolentior, malevolentissimus. 

Adjectives in ns preceded by a vowel, are generally com- 
pared by means of the adverbs magis, more, and maxime, 
most : as, 
idoneus,^; magis idoneus, maxime idoneus. 

II. The following are compared irregularly : — 

bonus, melior, optimus, good, better, best, 
malus, pejor, pessimus, bad, ivorse, worst. 
magnus, major, maximus, great, greater, greatest. 
parvus, minor, minimus, small, less, least. 
multum, plus, (n.) plurimum, much, more, most. 
multi, plures, plurimi, many, more, most. 
nequam (indecl.), nequior, nequissimus, worthless. 
frugi (indecl.), frugalior, frfigalissimus, discreet. 

III. The following comparatives and superlatives, denot- 
ing order in place or time, are formed from certain prepo- 
sitions : • — 

[citra, this side'] citerior, citimus, nearer, nearest. 

[extra, outside'] exterior, extremus, outer, outmost. 

[infra, beloiv] inferior, infimus or imus, lower, lowest. 

[intra, within] interior, intimus, inner, inmost. 

[post, after] posterior, postremus or postiimus, latter, last. 

[prae, before] prior, primus, former, first. 

[prope, near] propior, proximus, nearer, next. 

[supra, above] superior, supremus or summus, higher, highest. 

[ultra, beyond] ulterior, ultimus, farther, farthest. 

The positives inferus, exterus, &c, are rarely used as adjec- 
tives. But the plurals exteri, foreigners ; posteri, posterity; 
superi, the heavenly gods, and inferi, those below, are common. 

From the nouns juvenis, youth, senex, old man, are formed 
the comparatives junior, younger, senior, older. For the super- 



§17 COMPARISON. 17 

lative the phrase minimus or maximus natu is used, the noun 
natu being often understood : as, 

maximus fratrum, the eldest of the brothers. 

senior fratrum would mean the elder of the two. 

IV. Some adjectives want the positive : as, 
deterior, deterrimus, worse, icorst. 

ocior, ocissimus, swifter, swiftest, 

potior, potissimus, more, and most preferable. 

Some want the comparative : as, 

falsus, falsissimuSj/aZse, most false. 

inclitus (inclutus), inclitissimus, jfaTraows. 

novus, novissimus, new, newest or last (as in novissimum 
agmen, the rear-guard) . 

pauper, pauperrimus, poor. 

sacer, sacerrimus, sacred. 

vetus, veterrimus, old. 
Some want the superlative : as, 

alacer, alacrior, eager, 

ingens, ingentior, huge, 

opimus, opimior, rich, 

V. 1. The Comparative often denotes a considerable or 
excessive degree of a quality : as, brevior, rather short ; 
audacior, too bold. It is used instead of the superlative 
where only two are spoken of: as, 

melior imperatorum, the best of the (two) commanders. 

2. The comparative takes the ablative, or qu&mjhan : as, 
tribus unciis altior est fratre (or quam frater), he is three 

inches taller than his brother. (See § 54, v.) 

3. Comparison between adjectives is expressed by com- 
paratives with quam : as, 

latius quam altius est flumen, the stream is rather broad than deep. 

4. The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very 
high degree of a quality : as, maximus Humerus, a very 
great number. 

5. The superlative with quam indicates the very highest 
degree of a quality : as, quam plurimi, as many as possible. 



18 


NUMERALS. 


§18 




18. 


Numerals. 






I. Cardinal and Ordinal. 




1. 


unus, una, unum 


primus a um, first 


I. 


2. 


duo, duae, duo 


secundus, alter, second II. 


3. 


tres, tria 


tertius, third 


III. 


4. 


quattuor 


quartus, fourth 


IV. 


5. 


quinque 


quintus 


y. 


6. 


sex 


sextus 


VI, 


7. 


septem 


Septimus 


VII. 


8. 


octo 


octavus 


VIII, 


9. 


novem 


nonus 


IX 


10. 


decern 


decimus 


X 


11. 


undecim 


undecimus 


XL 


12. 


duodecim 


duodecimus 


XII, 


13. 


tredecim 


tertius decimus 


. XIII, 


14. 


quattuordecim 


quartus decimus 


XIV, 


15. 


quindecim 


quintus decimus 


XV. 


16. 


sedecim 


sextus decimus 


XVI, 


17. 


septendecim 


septimus decimus 


XVII 


18. 


duodevlginti 


duodevicesimus 


XVIII, 


19. 


undevlginti 


undevicesimus 


XIX, 


20. 


viginti 


vicesimus 


XX. 


30. 


trlginta 4 


tricesimus 


XXX 


40. 


quadraginta 


quadragesimus 


XL. 


50. 


quinquaginta 


quinquagesimus 


iL or L, 


60. 


sexaginta 


sexagesimus 


LX, 


70. 


septuaginta 


septuagesimus 


LXX. 


80. 


octoginta 


octogesimus 


LXXX. 


90. 


nonaginta 


nonagesimus 


XC. 


100. 


centum 


centesimus 


c. 


200. 


ducenti, ae, a 


ducentesimus 


cc. 


300. 


trecenti 


tre centesimus 


ccc. 


400. 


quadringenti 


quadringentesimus 


cccc. 


500. 


quingenti 


quingentesimus 


10, or D. 


600. 


sexcenti 


sexcentesimus 


DC. 


700. 


septingenti 


septingentesimus 


DCC. 


800. 


octingenti 


octingentesimus 


DCCC. 


900. 


nongenti 


nongentesimus 


DCCCC. 


1000. 


mille 


millesimus 


CIO, or M. 


10,000. 


decern milia 


decies millesimus 


CCIOO. 



§18 



NUMERALS. 



19 



1. Unus a um has genitive unius, dative uni (§ 16, I.). 

2. Duo (also ambo, both) is thus declined : — 



Norn. 
Gen. 
D. Ab. 
Ac. 



M. 

duo 

duorum 
duobus 
duos, duo 



F. 

duae 
duaruni 
duabus 
duas 



N. 

duo 

duorum 
duobus 
duo 



3. Tres is declined regularly, like the plural of brevis (§ 16). 
The other cardinal numbers up to centum (100) are indeclinable. 
Mille is indeclinable as an adjective ; but when several thousands 
are spoken of, the noun milia is used, declined like the plural of 
mare (§11, I.), the noun described being put in the genitive 
plural : as, cum decern milibus militum, with ten thousand men. 

4. The numeral adverbs are : semel, once ; bis, twice ; ter, 
thrice ; quater, four times. Those of higher numbers end in iens 
or ies: as, quinquiens (or quinquies), decies, milies, &c. 



II. Distributive. 



1 . singiili 

2. bin! 

3. terni 

4. quaterni 

5. quini 

6. sen! 

7. septeni 

8. octoni 

9. noveni 

10. deni 

11. undeni 



12. duo deni 

13. terni deni, &c. 
20. viceni 

30. triceni 

40. quadrageni 

50. quinquageni 

60. sexageni 

70. septuageni 

80. octogeni 

90. nonage ni 

100. centeni 



200. 

300. 

400. 

500. 

600. 

700. 

800. 

900. 

1000. 

2000. 

10,000. 



Distributives are used, ■ 



diiceni 

treceni 

quadringeni 

quingeni 

sesceni 

septingeni 

octingeni 

nongeni 

milleni 

bis milleni 

decies milleni 



1. As in the phrase singulas binis navibus obiciebant, they 
matched the ships one against every two. — Cses. B.C., I. 58. 

2. Instead of cardinals, when the noun is plural in form but 
singular in meaning : as, bina castra, two camps : (duo castra 
would mean two forts) : but una castra, one camp. 

3. In multiplication : as, bis bina, twice two ; quater septenis 
diebus ; i. e., in four weeks. 



20 



PRONOUNS. PERSONAL AND REFLECTIVE. 



19 



PRONOUNS. 



19. Personal and Reflective. 

I. The personal pronouns ego, I, and tu, thou, are thus 

declined : — ■ 





FIRST PERSON. 


SECOND PERSON. 




L 


thou (you.) 


Sing. N. 


ego 


tu 


G. 


mei 


tiii 


D. 


mihi (mi) 


tibi 


Ac. 


me 


te 


Ab. 


me 


te 


Plur. ST. Ac. 


nos 


vos 


G. 


^ nostrum 
I nostri 


J vestrum (vostrum) 


I vestri (vostri) 


D.Ab. 


nobis 


vobis 



II. The personal pronouns of the first and second persons 
are used also reflectively : as, 

ipse te laudas, you praise yourself. 

The reflective pronoun of the third person, himself herself 
themselves, is thus declined : — 

G. sui D. sibi Ac. and Ab. se, or sese 

It regularly refers to the subject of the sentence. 

III. The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are used partitive- 
ly : as, unusquisque vestrum, each one of you ; mei, tui, sui, 
nostri and vestri are used objectively : as, 

memor sis nostri, be mindful of us. 



§ 20 PRONOUNS. DEMONSTRATIVE. 21 

For the genitive of possession, the adjective pronouns 
meus (voc. masc. mi), tuus, suus, noster, vester, are always 
used, declined as in § 1G, I. : as, mi flli, my son ; cum amieis 
meis, with my friends. 

They agree with genitives in such phrases as tuam ipsius 
patriam prodidisti, you have betrayed your own fatherland ; suo 
solius pericillo, at his own peril only. — Cic. Cat., IV. 11. 

The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the ab- 
lative of the personal pronouns : thus, 
nobiscum ambiilat, he is ivalking with us. 

20. Demonstrative. 

I. The demonstrative pronouns hie, this ; is, iste, ille, 
that ; and ipse, self are thus declined : — 









SINGULAR. 








N. 


hie 


haec 


hoc 


is 


ea 


id 


G. 




hujiis 






ejus 




D. 




huic 






ei 




Ac. 


hunc 


i hanc 


hoc 


eum 


earn 


id 


Ab. 


hoc 


hac 


hoc 

PLURAL. 


eo 


ea 


eo 


M". 


hi 


hae 


haec 


ii (ei) 


eae 


ea 


G. 


horum harum horum 


eorum 


earum 


eorum 


D.Ab. 




his 




eis 


or iis 




Ac. 


hos 
iste 


has 
ista ist 


haec 


eos 
istius 


eas 
Dat. 


ea 


Nom. 


;ud Gen. 


isti 


55 


ille 


ilia illud , , 


illius 


55 


illi 



,, ipse ipsa ipsum ,, ipsius ,, ipsi 

Remainder as carus, in § 16, I. 

II. Hie is sometimes called the demonstrative of the first 
person ; iste (used especially in reference to the person spoken 
to, and frequently implying contempt), the demonstrative of the 
second person ; ille (referring to more remote objects, and used 
especially of those celebrated or well known), the demonstrative 
of the third person. Ille and hie are often used as " the former" 
and "the latter." Hie, or hie homo, is sometimes equivalent to 
ego, /: as, tu si hie sis, if you were 1. — Ter. Andr. 310. 



22 PRONOUNS. — RELATIVE. §21 

Is is used especially in reference to something just mentioned, 
or as antecedent to the relative qui, wlio. It is used oftener than 
the other demonstratives as a personal pronoun of the third per- 
son, and is sometimes nearly equivalent to the article a or the : as, 
eum quern esse hostem comperisti, one whom you have found 

to be a public enemy. — Cic. Cat. I. 11. 
habefcis eum consiilem qui . . . non dubitet, you have a consul 
who will not hesitate. — Id. IV. 11. 

Ipse, self, the intensive pronoun, is frequently joined with 
another pronoun : as, nos ipsi, or nosmetipsi, we ourselves ; or 
it may be used independently in either person : as, ipsi adestis, 
you are yourselves present. Often it may be translated very : as, 
ipsi colles clamant, the very hills cry out. 

Idem, eadem, idem, the same, is declined like is ; m being 
generally changed to n before d in the accusative ; as, eundem. 

21. Relative. 
I. The relative pronoun qui, who, is thus declined : — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

N. qui quae quod qui quae quae (qua) 

G. cujus (quoius) quorum quarum quorum 

D. cui (quoi) quibus or quis 

Ac. quern quam quod quos quas quae 

Ab. quo qua quo quibiis 

II. Qui, -who, is also used as an interrogative ; but when used 
substantively, the nominative singular is quis quae quid : as, 
quis adest ? who is here ? quid ais ? ivhat do you say ? 

As an adjective, qui is sometimes, and quod always, used : as, 
qui (or quis) homo est ? ivhat man is it ? 
quod bellum turn gerebatur ? what tear was then waging? 

Quantus, how great] qualis, of what land; quot, how many, 
and the like, are also used both as relative and interrogative, 
corresponding to tantus, so great ; talis, such ; tot, so many. 

The relative is often used in Latin where we must use the 
demonstrative in English : as, 
quae cum ita sint, since these things are so. 

The preposition cum, with, is affixed to the ablative of qui, as 
to the personal pronouns : as, quocum, quibuscum, witli ivhom. 



§22 CORRELATIVES. 23 

The conjunction ac, atque, is often used as a relative, in such 
phrases as, — 

pro eo ac mereor, according to ivhat I deserve. — Cic. 

alicer ac nos vellemus, different from what we ivoidd. — Id. 

III. The indefinite relative quicumque, whoever, is declined 
like qui. So quisquam, quivis, quilibet, any one; quisque, 
each ; quidam, a certain one. 

Quisquis, whoever, rarely occurs except in the forms quisquis 
quidquid (quicquid), and quoquo. 

Aliquis, some one ; siquis, if any ; nequis, lest any ; ecquis 
numquis, ivhether any, are like quis, but have qua for quae : as, 
siqua bella gerenda erunt, if any wars shall have to be waged. 

22. Correlatives. 

1. These are demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and in- 
definite ; the demonstratives generally commence with t or 
i; the relatives and interrogatives (which are alike) with 
qu ; the indefinites with all : as, 

tantus, so great ; quantus, as or how great ; aliquantus, of some 

size. 
ibi, there ; (hie, istic, illic) ; ubi, where ; aliciibi, somewhere. 
eo, thither ; (hue, illuc) ; quo, whither ; aliquo, to some jjlace. 
inde, thence ; (hinc, illinc) ; unde, whence ; aliunde, from some 

< place. 
turn, then; quum (quom, or cum), when; quando? ivhen? ali- 

quando, at some time, or at length. 
tot, so many ; quot, as or how many ; aliquot, a number of. 

These last are indeclinable : as, 
per tot annos, tot proeliis, tot imperatores, so many com- 
manders, for so many years, in so many battles. — Cic. 

2. Alter . . . alter (where only two are spoken of), and 
alius . . . alius, one . . . another, are used as correlatives in 
such phrases as — 

alter arat, alter serit, one ploughs, the other sows. 
alii me laudant, alii culpant, some praise me, others blame. 
alius aliud amat, one likes one thing, and one another. 
hi fratres inter se amant alter alterum, these brothers love one 
another. 



24 VERBS. STRUCTURE. MOODS. 



§§ 23^ 24 



VERBS. 



23. Structure. 

1. Latin verbs have two Voices, viz. Active and Passive ; 
— four Moods, viz. Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, In- 
finitive;— four Participles, viz. the Present and Future 
Active, the Perfect Passive, and the Gerundive; — two Ver- 
bal Nouns, viz. the Gerund and the Supine; — six Tenses, 
viz. Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Fu- 
ture Perfect ; — six Persons, three in the singular and three 
in the plural. 

2. The future and future perfect are wanting in the sub- 
junctive mood ; and the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect 
in the passive voice : their places being supplied by partici- 
ples, combined with corresponding tenses of the verb esse, 
to be. 

3. The passive voice has often a reflective meaning : as, 
cingitur gladium, he girds on his {own) sword. 

velamur capita, we veil our heads. — Virg. iEn. III. 545. 

24. Moods. 

I. The Indicative Mood is used for direct assertion or 
interrogation. 

II. The Subjunctive Mood is used for dependent proposi- 
tions and indirect questions. It is generally translated by 
the English indicative, especially when preceded by particles 
expressing condition or result ; sometimes by the potential, 
may, might, or would, especially after particles expressing 
motive or purpose. 



§ 24 MOODS. 25 

Examples of the use of the subjunctive in dependent con- 
structions are as follows : — 

nescio quid scribam, I know not ichat to write. (§ 67, i. 1.) 

nescio quid scribas, I know not icliat you are writing. 

ut scribam, non est satis, though I write, it is not enough. (§ 61, 2.) 

sine scribam, let me write. (§ 64, iv.) 

licet scribas, you may write. 

cave scribas, do not write. (§ 58, hi.) 

non is sum qui scribam, I am not the one to write. (§ 65, i.) 

vereor ne scribat, I fear he will write. (§ 64, in.) 

vereor ut scribat, I fear he will not write. 

sunt qui putent, there are some who think. (§ 65, iv. 2.) 

nemo est quin putet, there is none but thinks. 

sedet (sedebat) illic, tamquam scribat (scriberet), he sits 

(sat) yonder as if he ivere icriting. (§ 61, i.) 
si haec sciret, non veniret, if he knew this, he icould not come. 
si haec cognoscat, non veniat, if he should find this out, he 

would not come. (§ 65, iv. 1.) 
nisi haec cognovisset, non venisset, if he had not found this 

out, he icould not have come. (§ 65, iv. 2.) 
venit ut videret, he came to see. (§ 64, i.) 
evenit ut videret, it turned out that he saw. (§ 70, n.) 
tarn prope erat ut videret, he was so near as to see. (§ 65, i.) 
quis non gaudeat haec videns ? who would not be glad to see 

this? (§60,3.) 
cum domum rediisset, mortuus est, when he had returned home, 

he died. (§ 62, i.) 

An Indirect Question is an assertion in which a question is im- 
plied, without being expressed : thus — 

quis adest? who is here? is a direct question; but 

die mini quis adsit, tell me who is here, is an indirect question. 

III. 1. The Imperative present is used as in Engli>h ; but 
its place is often supplied (always in the first person) by the 
present or perfect subjunctive : as, 

ne crede colori, do not trust complexion. (§ 58, in.) 
dum vivimus vivamus, while we live let us live. 

Xot with the Imperative is ne ; and nor, neve. . 

2 



26 PARTICIPLES. §25 

2. The future is used especially for edicts and laws : as, 
regii imperii duo sunto, iique consules appellantor, there 

shall be two of Itingly authority, and they shall be called 

consuls. — Cic. Leg. III. 3. 
hominem mortuum in urbe ne sepelito neve urito, a dead man 

in the city thou shalt not bury nor burn. — xn. Tab. in Cic. 

IV. The Infinitive is used — 1. As the Object of a Verb : as, 
audire non possum, / cannot hear. 

2. With a Subject- Accusative, especially after Verbs of 
knowing, thinking, and telling : as, 

dixit me adesse, he said that I was present. 

3. As an Indeclinable Noun (with or without a subject- 
accusative), when it is often rendered in English by the 
participial noun : as, 

vivere est cogitare, living is thinking. 

miseret me te esse pauperem, it grieves me that you are poor. 

25. Participles. 

I. The Present Participle ends in ns (corresponding to our 
participle in ing), and is declined like sapiens, § 16, II. 

When used as an adjective, the ablative singular ends in i : 
as, 

florenti urbe potitur, he takes a flourishing city ; but, 
florente urbe, while the city flourished. 

The Future Active Participle (generally expressing pur- 
pose) ends in urus. The Perfect Passive Participle ends 
in us, and the Gerundive (sometimes called the Future Passive 
Participle), in dus ; they are declined like carus (§ 16, I.). 

The Gerundive either (1) has the meaning of ought or 
must : as, delenda est KarthagO, Carthage must be destroyed ; 
or (2) is used to govern the noun it agrees with : as, Kartha- 
ginis delendae causa, for the sake of destroying Carthage. 

II. The use of these participles is seen in the following 
examples : — 



§26 GERUND AND SUPINE. 27 

te id dicentem audivi, / heard you say that. 

sapientia Dei omnia giibernantis, the wisdom of God, who 

governs all. 
Curio ad focum sedenti, to Curius as he sat by the fire. 
Roma proficiscens Neapoli diu manebat, on his way from 

Borne he staid a good while at Naples. 
Roma profectus Athenas venit, he set out from Borne and came 

to Athens. 
Romam venit ludos spectaturus, or, ad spectandos ludos, 

he came to Borne to see the games. 
bona peto semper duratura, I seek goods that will last forever. 
reluctante natiira, invitus labor est, if nature refuses, toil is vain. 
anno post exactos reges decimo, ab urbe condita ducente- 

simo quinquagesimo quarto, the tenth year after the kings' 1 

banishment, and the 25-ith from the founding of the city. 

And the Perfect Participle in English must often be ren- 
dered by other constructions in Latin : as, 

cum Romam rediisset, in forum venit, having returned to Borne, 

he came into the forum. 
equitatu praemisso, subsequebatur omnibus copiis, having 

sent forward the cavalry, he followed close with all his 

forces. — Oks. B.G. II. 19. 

26. Gerund and Supine. 

I. The Gerund is inflected as a Neuter Noun of the Second 
Declension. Its use is as follows : — 

N. scribendum est mihi, / have to write. 

G. labor scribendi, the task of writing. 

D. utile scribendo, serviceable for writing. 

Ac. inter scribendum, while writing. 

Ab. scribendo respondit, he answered by writing. 

But with a direct object, the Gerundive is usually employed : 
as, 

N. scribenda est mihi epist81a, / have to write a letter. 

G. labor scribendae epistblae, the task of writing a letter. 

This is the regular way in Latin of expressing ought or 
must. 



28 TENSES. § 27 

II. The Former Supine is in form the accusative, and the 
Latter Supine the ablative, of a verbal noun of the fourth 
declension. 

The Former is used after verbs of motion, especially in 
dialogue or familiar speech: as, hue venit consultum, he 
has come hither to consult ; the Latter after certain adjectives : 
as, horribile dictu, shocking to tell The latter is found only 
in a few verbs. 

27. Tenses. 

I. The Present tense expresses an action or state as now 
continuing; as, VOCO, I am calling; VOCOr, I am \being~\ 
called, i. e. some one is now calling me. 

It is sometimes used, as in English, to give life to narra- 
tive : as, Caesar COllVOCat SUOS, Ccesar summons his men ; 
and may sometimes be rendered by the Perfect in English : 
as, jamdiu te VOCO, I have been long calling you. 

II. The Imperfect is used to tell a condition of things 
formerly existing. Hence it is employed — 

1. In Descriptions : as, erant omnino itinera duo . . . mons 
altissimus impendebat, there were in all two ways . . . a very 
high mountain overhung. — Cses. B.G. I. 6. 

2. To relate a Continued or Repeated Action : as, saepe 
dicebat, lie would often say ; mirabar, / used to wonder. 

3. To state the Circumstances attending an action or event: 
as, dum haec gerebantur, while this was going on. 

III. The Perfect is used to tell an action or event occur- 
ring at a given time in the past. Hence it is employed — 

1. In Narration (perfect aorist, indefinite, or historical) : as, 
veni, vidi, vici, 7" came, saiv, conquered. 

2. After ut, iibi, posteaquam or postquam, when, (with a 
leading verb in a past tense), as equivalent to the pluperfect: as, 
iibi haec dixit, abiit, when he had said this, he went away. 

3. It is also used to relate a past act or state in reference to 
the present time (perfect definite or relative) : as, 

pater te jam vocavit, your father has already called you. 



§27 TENSES. 29 

4. In the subjunctive, it usually follows a leading verb in the 
present; as, 

nescio utrum ita evenerit necne, I donH know whether it hap- 
pened (or has happened) so or not. 

In Latin, and in all languages derived from Latin, there are 
two past tenses, — the Perfect, or Preterite, which is used for 
narration, to tell the main fact, and the Imperfect, which is used 
for description, or to state the attending circumstances : as, 
dum Cicero domi manebat, Caesar interfectus est, while Cicero 
staid at home, Ccesar was slain. 

The Gothic languages, including English, have only one Past 
tense. 

IV. The Future and Future Perfect are used, though 
with greater accuracy, like the corresponding tenses in Eng- 
lish : as, 

cum audivero, scribam, when I \_shalT] have heard, I will write. 

V. Tenses are distributed in these two classes, — 

1. Primary, including Present, Perfect [Definite] , and Future. 

2. Secondary, including Imperfect, Perfect [Historical], and 
Pluperfect. 

VI. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect, of the 
Active Voice, are derived from a stem (wanting in the Pass- 
ive), which is usually formed by adding v [u] or s, with or 
without a connecting vowel, to the Stem of the Present ; this 
is called the Second or Perfect Stem : as, 

voc o, vocav i ; — die o, dix i. 

In the Passive, these tenses are supplied by adding the 
corresponding tenses of esse, to he, to the Perfect Participle. 
This participle is derived from the third or Supine stem, 
which is usually formed by adding t, with or without a con- 
necting vowel, to the present stem: as, 

vocati sumus, ive have been called. 

haec dicta erunt, this will have been said. 

The Perfect (definite), Pluperfect, and Future Perfect 
are called the tenses of Completed Action. 



30 



PERSONAL ENDINGS. ESSE. 



i 28, 29 



28. Personal Endings. 

The terminations of the persons are as follows : ■ 



ACTIVE. 

S. 1. m [o, i] P. 1. mus 

2. s [ti] 2. tis 

3. t 3. nt 



PASSIVE. 

S. 1. r P. 1. mur 

2. ris, re 2. mini 

3. tur 3. ntur 



All Latin words in common use, ending in t, — except at, but ; 
et, and; ut, that; caput, head; dumtaxat, however; licet, al- 
though, and Indefinites in -libet, — are in the third person of 
verbs ; all ending in nt are in the third person plural. 

29. Esse. 

I. The Substantive Verb esse, to be, is thus inflected. It 
has neither Gerund nor Supine, and only the Future Par- 
ticiple : — 

Principal Parts: sum, lam; esse, to be; fui, / have been; 
futurus, about to be: — second stem, fu; third stem, fat. 



INDICATIVE. subjunctive. 






Present. / am. 






Sing. 1. 


sum, I am. 


sim 




2. 


es, thou art (you are). 


sis 




3. 


est, he {she, it) is. 


sit 




Plur. 1. 


sumiis, we are. 


simtis 




2. 


estis, you are. 


SltlS 




3. 


sunt, they are. 

Imperfect. / was. 


sint 




Sing. 1. 


eram 


essem 


forem 


2. 


eras 


esses 


fores 


3. 


erat 


esset 


fcret 


Plur. 1. 


eramiis 


essemus 




2. 


eratis 


essetis 




3. 


erant 


esseut 


forent 



29 



ESSE. 



31 



Future. / shall be. 



Sing. 1. Sro 




futurus sim 


2. eris 




futurus sis 


3. erit 




futurus sit 


Plur. 1. erimus 




futuri simus 


2. eritis 




futuri sitis 


3. erunt 




futuri sint 


Perfect. 


/ was, or have been. 


Sing. 1. fui 




fuerim 


2. fuisti 




fueris 


3. fuit 




fuerit 


Plur. 1. fuimus 




fuerimus 


2. fuistis 




fueritis 


3. fuerunt or 


fuere fuerint 


Pluperfect. 


/ had been. 


Sing. 1. fueram 




fuissem 


2. fueras 




fuisses 


3. fuerat 




fuisset 


Plur. 1. fueramus 




fuissemus 


2. fueratis 




fuissetis 


3. fuerant 




fuissent 


Future Perfect. 


I shall have been. 


Sing. 1. fuero 




fuerim 


2. fueris 




fueris 


3. fuerit 




fuerit 


Plur. 1. fuerimus 




fuerimus 


2. fu eritis 




fueritis 


3. fuerint 




fuerint 



IMPERATIVE. 

Present, es, be thou : este, be ye. 
Future. esto, thou shalt be, he shall be. 

estote, ye shall be : sunto, they shall be. 



INFINITIVE. 

Present, esse, to be. 

Perfect, fuisse, to have been. 

Future, fore or futurus esse, to be about to be. 



32 CONJUGATION. § 30 

II. Abesse, to be absent, and adesse, to be present, are in- 
flected in the same way with esse. The Present Participle 
of abesse is absens ; praesens is used as the participle of 
adesse. The Imperative is wanting in both. 

III. Posse, to be able (potls esse), is thus conjugated : — 





indicative. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Present, can. 


possum 


possim 




potes 


possis 




potest 


possit 




possumus 


possimus 




potestis 


possitis 




possunt 


possint 


m Imperfect, could 


. poteram 


possem 


Future. 


potero 




Perfect. 


potui 


potuerim 


Pluperfect. 


potueram 


potuissem 


Fut. Perfect. 


potuero 




Infin. Pres. 


posse 


Perf. potuisse 


Participle. 


potens, able. 





IV. Prodesse, to kelp (pro esse), is conjugated like sum, 
inserting d where followed by e : as, 
prosum, prodes, prodest, prosiimus, prodestis, prosunt. 

30. Conjugation. 

I. Verbs have four regular Conjugations, distinguished by 
the connecting vowel of the Present Infinitive : these are — 

as, vSc a re, to call. 
as, mon e re, to warn. 
as, mitt e re, to send. 
as, and I re, to hear. 

II. The Perfect and Supine Stems are regularly formed by 
adding to the Present Stem, in the several conjugations, — 

(1.) av, at: as, v6co vocare vocavi vocatum call. 

(2.) ev, et: as, deleo delere delevi deletum wipe oat. 

(3.) s, t: as, carpo carpere carpsi carptum pluck. 

(4.) iv, It: as, audio audire audivi auditum hear. 



1. 


a 


2. 


e 


3. 


e 


4. 


I 



§30 CONJUGATION. 33 

In the second conjugation ev, et, are usually modified 
into U, it : as, 
moueo, monere, monui, monitum, warn. 

III. The stem of the third conjugation usually ends in a 
consonant ; this is combined with S in the same way as in 
nouns (§ 11, in. 1, 2, 3) : as, 

rego, regere, rexi, rectum, rule. 

Vowel-stems of the third conjugation end in I or u. In 
the former, the stem is usually lengthened in the perfect : as, 
fugio, fugere, fugi, fugitum, flee. 

In these verbs the i is dropped when it would be followed by 
e or I : as, 

fugis, fugit, fugere, fugerem; 

But it is retained before e : as in fugiebam ; also, fugiet. 
A stem ending in u (v), is unchanged in the Perfect : as, 

acuo acuere acui acutum sharpen. 

volvo (uoluo) volvere volvi volutum turn. 

IV. The perfect stem is often formed by simply lengthen- 
ing the stem-vowel : as, 



(1.) juvo 


juvare 


juvi 


jutum 


help. 


(2.) cieo 


ciere 


civi 


citum 


rouse. 


(3.) fugio 


fugere 


fugi 


fugitum 


flee. 


(4.) venio 


venire 


veni 


ventum 


come. 



Or by reduplicating the stem-syllable : as, 

(1.) do, dare, dedi, datum, give (compounds usually in the third 

conjugation : as, addo, addere, addidi, additum, add.) 
(2.) mordeo, mordere, momordi, morsum, bite. 
(3.) curro, currere, ciicurri, cursum, run. 

Or by analogy of other conjugations : as, 

(1.) sSco secare secui sectum cut. 

(2.) maneo manere mansi mansum wait. 

(3.) peto petere petivi petitum seek. 

(4.) vincio viucire vinxi vinctum bind. 

2* 



34 ACTIVE YOICE. §31 

31. Active Voice. — First and Second Conjugations. 



I. IN DIC. 


SUBJ. 


ii. 


IN DIC. 




SUBJ. 


I call. 


Presen 


r. 


I 


warn. 




voc o 


voc em 


mon eo 


mon earn 


as 


es 




es 




eas 


at 


et 




et 




eat 


amus 


emus 




emus 




eamus 


at is 


etis 




etis 




eatis 


ant 


erit 




ent 




eant 



I called (was calling). Imperfect. I warned (was warning). 

voc abam voc arem mon ebam mon erem 

abas ares ebas ere.3 

abat aret ebat eret 

abamus aremus ebamus eremus 

abatis aretis ebatis eretis 

abant arent ebant erent 

I will call. Future. / will ivam. 

voc abo voc aturus sim mon ebo mon iturus sim 

abis sis ebis sis 

abit sit ebit sit 

abimus -aturi simus ebimus -ituri simus 

abitis sitis ebitis sitis 

abunt sint ebunt sint 

/ called (have called.) Perfect. I teamed (have warned.) 

vocav i vocav erim monu i monu erim 

/ had called. Pluperfect. I had learned. 

vocav eram vocav issem monu eram monuissem 

7 shall have called. Future Perfect. I shall have warned. 
vocav ero (vocav erim) monu ero (monu erim) 

Imperative. 
Pkes. voc a voc ate mon e mon ete 

Fur. voc ato voc atote, anto moneto monetote, ento 

Infinitive. 
voc are vocav isse mon ere monuisse 

Participles. 

voc ans voc aturus mon ens mon iturus 

Gerund. Supine. Gerund. Supine. 

voc andum vocat um, u mon endum momfc urn, u 



§31 



ACTIVE VOICE. 



35 



Third and Fourth Conjugations. 



III. INDIC. 


SUB J. 


IV. 


INDIC. s 


UBJ. 


I rule. Present 




/ hear. 




rego 


regain 


aud io aud 


iam 


is 


as 




is 


ias 


it 


at 




it 


iat 


imus 


amus 




imus 


iamus 


itis 


atis 




itis 


iatis 


unt 


ant 




iunt 


iant 


/ ruled (was 


ruling). Imperfect. 


I heard (was hearing) . 


reg ebam 


reg erem 


aud iebam aud irem 


ebas 


eres 




iebas 


ires 


ebat 


eret 




iebat 


iret 


ebamus 


eremus 




iebamus 


iremus 


ebatis 


eretis 




iebatis 


iretis 


ebant 


erent 




iebant 


irent 


I will rule. Future. 




/ will hear. 




reg am recturus sim 


aud iam auditurus sim 


es 


sis 




ies 


sis 


et 


sit 




iet 


sit 


emus 


recturi simus 




iemus audituri simus 


etis 


sitis 




ietis 


sitis 


ent 


sint 




ient 


sint 



I ruled (have ruled). Perfect. I heard (have heard) . 
rex i rex erim audiv i audiv erim 

I had ruled. Pluperfect. I had heard. 

rex eram rex issem audiv eram audiv issem 

Future Perfect. 
rex ero (rex erim) audiv ero (audiv erim) 

Imperative. 
P. reg e reg ite aud 1 aud ifce 

F. reg ifco reg itote, unto aud ito aud itote, iunto 

Infinitive. 
reg ere rex isse aud ire audiv isse 

Participles. 
reg ens recturus audiens auditurus 

Gerund. Supine. Gerund. Supine. 

reg end im rect um, u aud ienclum audit urn, u 



3b PASSIVE VOICE. §32 

32. Passive Voice. — First and Second Conjugations. 



I. INDIC. 


SUBJ. 


ii. 


INDIC. 


SUBJ. 


/ am (being) 


called. 


Present. 


I am 


(being) warned 


voc or 


voc er 


mon eor 


mon ear 


aris 


eris, re 


eris 


earis, re 


atur 


etur 




etur 


eatur 


amur 


emur 




emur 


eamur 


amini 


emini 




emini 


eamini 


antur 


entur 




entur 


eantur 



/ was (being) called. Imperfect. 1 was (being) warned. 

vocabar voc arer mon ebar monerer 

abaris, re areris, re ebaris, re ereris, re 

abatur aretur ebatur eretur 

abamur aremur ebamur eremur 

abamini aremini ebamini eremini 

abantur arentur ebantur erentur 

I shall be called. Future. I shall be warned. 

voc abor mon ebor 

aberis, re eberis, re 

abitur ebitur 

abimur ebimur 

abimini ebimini 

abuntur ebuntur 

I was called. Perfect. I to as warned. 

vocatus sum vocatus sim monitus sum monitus sim 

Iliad been called. Pluperfect. I had been warned. 

vocatus eram, essem monitus eram, essem 

Future Perfect. (Shall have been.) 
vocatus ero monitus ero 

Imperative. 
P. voc are voc amini mon ere mon emini 

F. voc ator voc antor mon etor mon entor 

Infinitive. 

Pres. voc ari mon eri 

Perf. vocatus esse monitus esse 

Fut. vocatum iri monitum iri 

perf. ger. Participles. perf. geh. 

voc atus voc andus mon itus mon endus 



j 32 



PASSIVE VOICE. 



37 



Third and Fourth Conjugations. 



III. IN DIC. 


SUBJ. 


IV. INDIC. SUBJ. 


I am (being) 


ruled. 


Present. I am (being) heard, 


reg or 


regar 


aud ior aud iar 


eris 


aris, re 


iris iaris, re 


itur 


atur 


itur iatur 


lmur 


amur 


lmur iamur 


imini 


amini 


imini iamiiii 


untur 


antur 


iuntur iaiitur 



I was (being) ruled. 
reg ebar reg erer 

ebaris, re ereris, re 



Imperfect. I was (being) heard. 

aud iebar aud irer 



ebatur 


eretur 


ebamur 


eremur 


ebamini 


eremini 


eb antur 


erentur 


I shall be ruled. 




regar 




eris, re 




etur 




emur 




emini 




entur 




/ icas ruled. 





iebaris, re 
iebatur 
iebamur 
iebamini 
ieb antur 



ireris, re 

iretur 

iremur 

iremini 

irentur 



Future. I shall be heard. 

aud iar 

ieris, re 

ietur 

iemur 

iemini 

ientur 

Perfect. / teas heard. 

rectus sum rectus sim auditus sum auditus sim 

/ had been ruled. Pluperfect. I had been heard. 

auditus eram, essem 

Future Perfect. (Shall have been.) 
auditus ero 
Imperative. 
reg imini aud ire aud imini 

reg untor aud itor aud iuntor 

Infinitive. 
reg i aud iri 

rectus esse auditus esse 

rectum iri auditum iri 

ger. Participles, perf. ger. 

regendus auditus audiendus 



rectus eram, 
rectus ero 

reg ere 
reg itor 

Pres. 
Perf. 
Fut. 

perf. 
rectus 



38 CONJUGATION. §§ 33, 34 

33. Rules of Conjugation. 

I. The Conjugations differ from one another only in the 
tenses formed upon the First or Present Stem. 

All irregularities are either in the tenses derived from the 
first stem, or in the formation of the other stems ; never in 
the terminations added to them. 

The tenses formed upon the first stem in the active voice 
are also formed upon it in the passive. 

Tenses of the second stem are inflected like the corre- 
sponding tensts of esse : as, 
Perf. Sing, vocavi, vocavisti, vocavit ; 

Plur. vocavimus, vocavistis, vocaverunt or vocavere. 

II. In these inflections it will be observed, that — 

1. The Imperfect Subjunctive is formed from the Present In- 
finitive by adding m ; and the Pluperfect Subjunctive from the 
Perfect Infinitive in the same manner. 

2. The passive tenses of the first stem are formed from the 
corresponding ones in the active, by changing m into r ; or, where 
the active ends in o, by adding r. 

3. The Imperative Passive is the same in form with the Present 
Infinitive Active. 

III. 1. In tenses formed from the Second Stem, v between two 
vowels is often suppressed (syncopated), and the vowels in some 
cases made one ; as amasse for amavisse, flestis for flevistis, 
audieram for audiveram. This takes place regularly in the com- 
pounds of eo, go (fourth conj.) ; as, abii for abivi, I went away. 

2. Four verbs, dico, duco, facio, and fero, with several of 
their compounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, 
making die, due, f ac, fer : as, die mini, tell me ; aufer, take 
aicay. 

34. Forms of Conjugation. 

I. The principal parts of a verb, which determine its 
conjugation throughout, are the Present Indicative and In- 
finitive (first stem) ; the Perfect Indicative (second stem) ; 
and Supine (third stem) : as, 

voc o, voc are, vocav i, vocat um, call. 



134 



CONJUGATION. 



39 



II. In the following examples of conjugation, to form the 
perfect and supine, i is to be added to the second stem, and 
um to the third : — 



domo, domu- domit- subdue. 
lavo, lav- laut- (lot-) wash. 
sono, sonu- sonit- sound. 
sto, stet- stat- stand. 
veto, vetu- vetit- forbid. 

ii. 
doceo, docu- doct- teach. 
faveo, fav- faut- favor. 
jubeo, juss- juss- order. 
moveo, mov- mot- move. 
sedeo, sed- sess- sit. 
torqueo, tors- tort- twist. 
video, vid- vis- see. 

in. 
ago, eg- act- drive. 
alo, alu- alt- (alit-) nourish. 
cado, cecid, cas- fall. 
caedo, cecid- caes- kill. 
cano, cecin- cant- sing. 
capio, cep- capt- take. 
cedo, cess- cess- yield. 
cingo, cinx- cinct- gird. 
colo, colu- cult- till. 
credo, credid- credit- believe 
cresco, crev- cret- grow. 
ciipio, cupiv- cupit- desire. 
dico, dix- diet- say. 
duco, dux- duct- lead. 
emo, em- empt- buy. 
facio, fee- fact- make. 
fallo, fefell- fals- deceive. 
fero, tul- lat- bear. 
figo, fix- fix- fix. 
fingo, finx- fict- feign. 
fiecto, flex- flex- bend. 



frango, freg- fract- break. 
fundo, fud- fus- pour. 
gero, gess- gest- bear. 
gigno, genu- genit- beget. 
jacio, jec- jact- throw. 
laedo, laes- laes- hurt. 
mitto, mis- miss- send. 
nosco, nov- not- learn. 
parco, peperc- parcit- spare. 
pario, peper- part- produce. 
pasco, pav- past- feed. 
pello, pepiil- puis- drive. 
pono, posu- posit- put. 
premo, press- press- press. 
quaero, quaesiv- quaesit- ask. 
rapio, rapu- rapt- snatch. 
rumpo, rup- rupt- break. 
scribo, scrips- script- write. 
sero, sev- sat- sow. 
sero, seru- sert- bind. 
tango, tetig- tact- touch. 
tego, tex- tect- cover. 
texo, texu- text- weave. 
tollo, sustiil- sublat- lift. 
traho, trax- tract- drag. 
veho, vex- vect- carry. 
vinco, vie- vict- conquer. 
vivo, vix- vict- live. 

IV. 

aperio, aperu- apert- open. 
haurio, haus- haust- draw. 
operio, operu- opert- cover. 
reperio, reper- repert- find. 
sancio, sanx- sanct- ratify. 
sentio, sens- sens- feel. 
venio, veil- vent- come. 



40 DEPONENT VERBS. §35 

35. Deponent Verbs. 

I. Deponent Verbs have the form of the Passive Voice, 
with an Active or Reflective signification : as, 



1. 


miror 


mirari 


miratus 


admire, 


2. 


mereor 


mereri 


meritus 


deserve. 


3. 


sequor 


sequi 


secutus 


follow. 


4. 


potior 


potiri 


potitus 


obtain. 



These verbs have the Participles, Gerunds, and Supines of both 
Voices: as, mirans, miraturus, miratus, mirandus. The par- 
ticiple in dus, however, has a Passive meaning, and hence can occur 
only in Transitive Verbs : as. 
potienda est tellus, the land must be won. 

II. The Verbs audeo, dare ; fido, trust ; gaudeo, rejoice; 
soleo, be wont, have no Second or Perfect Stem, but form the 
Perfect, &c, after the analogy of the Passive : as, ausus est, 
he dared; fisus sum, I trusted ; gaviSUS est, he ivas glad ; 
soliti sumus, we were wont. They are called Semi-Deponent. 

From audeo we have the subjunctive ausim. The form sodes, 
an thou wilt, (for si audes), is frequent in the comic writers. 

III. The following list contains some of the most impor- 
tant Deponents, including many which form the Supine stem 
irregularly. The Infinitives are all regular : — 

amplect or, -i, amplex- embrace, nasc or, -i, nat- be born. 

con or, -ari, conatus, try. nit or, -i, nis- or nix- lean. 

exper ior, -iri, expert- test. oblivisc or, -i, oblit- forget. 

fat eor, -eri, fass- confess. ordior, -iri, ors- begin. 

fru or, -i, fruct- enjoy. brior, -iri, ortus, oriturus (or- 
fun^or, -i, funct- perforin. t eris, -itur, -erer), arise. 

gradior, -i, gress- step. paciscor, -i, pact- bargain. 

labor, -i, laps- glide, fall. pat ior, -i, pass- suffer. 

loquor, -i, locxit- speak. polliceor, -eri, ipoWicit- promise. 

met ior, -iri ; rnensus, measure, proficiscor, -i, profect- go. 

miser eor, -eri, miserit- or mi- quer or, -i, quest- complain. 

sert- pity. reor, reri, ratus, reckon. 

mor ior, -i, (-iri) , mortuus, mo- tu eor, -eri, tuitus, protect. 

riturus, (moribundus), die. ut or, -i, usus, employ. 



§§ G6, 37 DERIVATIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 41 

36. Derivative Verbs. 

I. Inchoative or Inceptive Verbs are formed by add- 
ing the termination SCO to the stem and connecting vowel of 
their primitives: as, from caleo, I am warm, calesco, I grow 
warm. They are of the Third Conjugation, and are found 
only in the tenses of the First or Present Stem. 

II. Intensives are formed by adding the terminations of 
the first conjugation to the third stem of certain verbs : as, 
dieto, dictate, from dlCO (dictum), say. 

III. Frequentatives are formed by adding ito to the 
first stem of verbs of the first conjugation, lto or o to the 
third stem of those of the third, and inflecting as in the first : 
as, clamito, I keep shouting ; dictitat, he keeps saying. 

IV. Desideratives, expressing a wish, end in urio, and 
are of the fourth conjugation : as, esurio (from edo, eat), 1 
am hungry. 

37. Irregular Verbs. 
[For esse and its derivatives see § 29.] 

I. Volo, velle, volui, wish (no third stem). 

Ixd. Pr. volo vis vult volumus vultLs volunt. 
Sub j. Pr velim. Imperf. vellem. 

Other tenses are regular. There is no Imperative. The form 
sis for si vis r if you please, is often found after imperatives : as, 
cave sis mentiaris, take care you donH lie. Cic. Mil. 22. 

II. Nolo (non volo), nolle, nolui, to he unwilling. 

Ixd. Pr. nolo non vis non vult noliimus nonvultis nolunt. 

Si'bj. Pr. nolim. Imperf. nollem. 

Imperative, noli nolito nolite nolitote nolunto. 

The rest regular. No third stem. 

III. Malo (magis volo), malle, Hialui, prefer. 

Ixd. Pr. malo mavis ma vult malumus mavultis malunt 
Sub j. Pr. malim. Imperf. mallem. 

The rest regular ; no Imperative or third stem. 



42 IRREGULAR VERBS. §37 

IV. Fero, ferre, ttili, latum, hear. 

Active : Ind. Pres. fero fers fert ferimus fertis ferunt. 
Subj. Imp. ferrem. Imperat. fer ferto ferte fertote ferunto. 

Passive: Ind. Pres. feror ferris fertur ferimur, &c. 
Subj. Imp. ferrer. Imperat. ferre fertor ferimini feruntor. 
Infinitive, ferri, latus esse. 
Participles, ferens laturus latus ferendus. 

The rest regular. 

V. Edo, eat, is a regular verb of the third conjugation, 
with the following forms like those of esse : — 

Ind. Pres. es est estis. Subj. (Pres. edim). Imperf. essem. 
Imperat. es esto este estote. Infin. esse. 

VI. Eo, Ire, Ivi, itum, go. 

Ind. Pres. eo is it imus itis eunt. 

Imperf. ibam. Fut. ibo ibis ibit ibimus ibitis ibunt 

Subj. Pr. earn. Imperf. irein. 

Imperat. i ito ite itote eunto. 

Part. Pres. iens, euntis. Fut. iturus. Ger. eundum. 

VII. Facio, facere, feci, factum, make, is inflected regu- 
larly in the Active ; having also the peculiar forms faxo 
(fut. perf.) and faxim (subj. perf.). It has no Passive 
tenses formed upon the present stem, but uses instead fio, 
be made, or become, which is inflected as a regular verb of 
the Fourth Conjugation, but has the infinitive fieri and the 
subjunctive imperfect fierem : thus, — fio fieri factus sum. 

Compounds of facio with prepositions, change a into i in the 
first stem, and into e in the third, and form their passive regu- 
larly : as, 
conficio conficere confeci confectum, finish. 

Other compounds retain the a, and have fio in the Passive : as, 
Act. bene-facio, (-fa'cis), -feci, -factum. Pass, benefio, 
benefit. 

VIII. ftueo, / can, and nequeo, / cannot, are conjuga- 
ted like eo. They are rarely used except in the present : as, 
queo quis quit, quire, quivi. 



38,39 DEFECTIVE AND IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



43 



38. Defective Verbs. 

I. Coepi, began ; odi, hate ; and memini, remember, have 
no first stem. Incipio, begin, is used as a present for coepi ; 
Odi and memini, though perfect in form, have the present 
signification, and are hence called Preteritive Verbs. They 
are inflected regularly in the tenses derived from the second 
stem. Other parts of these verbs are — 

1. Coeptus (used with the Passive Infinitive : as, urbs coepta 
est obsideri, the city began to be beset) ; coepturus, about to 
begin. 

2. Osus osurus, both Active in their signification. 

3. Imperative, memento mementote, remember. 

II. Aio, say, has the forms — 

ais ait aiunt, aiebam, &c. ; aias aiat aiant, aiens. 

III. Inquam, quoth I (used in quotations : as, inquit, quoth 
he), has the following forms : — 

Pr. Ixd. inquam inquis inquit inquimus inquitis inquiunt. 
Imperf. inquiebas. Perf. inquisti inquit. 
Fut. inquies in quiet. Imperat. in que in quite 

IV. Fari, speak, forms the periphrastic tenses regularly : 
as, fatus sum, &c. It has also — 

Ixd. Pr. fatur. Fut. fabor, fabitur. 
Imperat. fare. Infix, fari. Supixe. fatu. 
Certain other forms occur in Compounds. 

V. The following are found chiefly in the Imperative : — 

1. salve, salvete, liail. (salveo.) 

2. ave, avete, aveto, hail, ox farewell, (aveo.) 
^3. cedo, cette, grant, pray. 4. apage, begone ! 

39. Impersonal Verbs. 

These are found only in the third person singular, with- 
out any personal subject, this being often supplied by -m 
infinitive or other grammatical construction. The most usual 
verbs of this class are such as the following : — 



44 PERIPHRASTIC FORMS. ADVERBS. §§40,41 

1. Libet (lubet), it pleases ; licet, it is permitted, with infini- 
tive subject and dative of person : as, 

libet mihi legere, licet tibi ludere, I like to read, you may 
play. 

2. Miseret, it grieves, pudet, it shames, taedet, it wearies, 
piget, it disgusts, with aec. of person and gen. of object : as, 
miseret me casus tui, I am sorry for your mishap. 

3. Accidit, it happens ; restat, it remains ; having a phrase or 
clause as subject: as, 

persaepe evenit ut iitiiitas cum honestate certet, it often 
happens that gain is at variance with honor. (§ 70, n.) 

4. Pluit, it rains ; ningit, it snows ; grandinat, it hails. 

5. The passive of Neuter Verbs, or those governing the Da- 
tive : as, pugnatur, there is fighting ; parcitur mihi, I am spared. 

40. Periphrastic Forms. 

I. The participle in rus may be used with any mood or 
tense of sum, forming the Periphrastic Future Active : as, 
cum venturus sit, since he is about to come. 

II. The participle in dus (Gerundive) may be used in the 
same way to denote duty or propriety : as, 

vera dicenda sunt, the truth must be told. 

The Gerundive of neuter verbs is often used imperson- 
ally (called the Nominative of the Gerund) : as, 
pugnandum est nobis, we must fight. 

41. Adverbs. 
I. Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives of the 
first and second declensions by adding e to the stem ; from 
those of the third by adding ter or iter : as, 

cams, dear, care ; sapiens, wise, sapienter ; brevis, short, bre- 
viter ; audax, bold, audaciter, or audacter. 

The Comparative of an adverb thus formed is the neuter 
of the corresponding adjective ; the superlative changes US of 
the adjective into e : as, 



§H ADVERBS. 45 

care, carius, carissime, dearly. 
nuper, nuperrime, lately, just now. 
sapienter, sapientius, sapientissime, icisely. . 
breviter, brevius, brevissime, si tartly. 
facLiter (or facile), facilius, facillime, easily. 
bene (for bone), melius, optime, well, better, best. 
male, pejus, pessime, ill, worse, icorst. 

So compare the adverbs — 

diu, diutius, diutissime, long (in time), 
saepe, saepius, saepissime, often. 
satis, enough; satius, preferable. 
secus, secius, otherwise. 

II. The following adverbs require special explanation : — 

1. Etiani, also, is stronger than quoque, and precedes the 
emphatic word, while quoque follows it : as, 

terret etiam nos, ac mlnatur, us also lie terrifies and threatens. 

— Cic. Ros. Am. 40. 
hoc quoque maleficium, this crime likewise. — Id. 

2. Nunc, now, points definitely to the present time ; jam, al- 
ready, has a reference to the past, and with negatives means no 
longer. A similar relation exists between tunc and turn : as, 
nunc jam aperte rempublicam petis, now at last you openly 

attack the commonwealth. — Cic. Cat. I. 5. 
non est jam lenitati locus, there is no longer room for lenity. 

■ — Id. II. 4. 
nunc quidem deleta est, tunc florebat, now to be sure it [Greece"] 

is destroyed, then it prospered. — Id. Ros. Am. 4. 
turn, cum ex urbe Catilinam eiciebam, at the time iclien I 

teas engaged in expelling Catiline from the city. — Id. Cat. 

III. 2. 

3. Cert5 means certainly ; certe usually at any rate: as, 
certo scio, I know for a ceiiainty. — Cic. de Senect. 1. 

onere aut jam urgentis aut certe adventantis senectiitis 
et te et me ipsum levari volo, I icish both you and 
myself to be relieved of the weight of old age, which is 
either already pressing upon us, or at any rate approach- 
ing. — Id. 



46 



PREPOSITIONS. 



§42 



4. Primum, first, is usually followed by deinde, next, &c. ; 
primo, at first, by postea or mox, afterwards : as, 

primum mihi videtur de genere belli, deinde de magnitu- 

dine, turn de imperatore deligendo esse dicendum, 

I think 1 must speak first of the nature of the war, next of 

Jts magnitude, then of the choice of a commander. — Cic. 

de Leg. Man. 2. 

dissuadente primo Vercingetorige, post concedente, Vercin- 
getorix at first opposing, afterwards yielding. — Cses. B.G. 
VII. 15. " 

5. With ne . . . quidem, not even, the emphatic word stands be- 
tween ne and quidem: as, 

ne ominis quidem causa, not even for the sake of the omen. — 
Cic. Ros. Am. 48. 



42. Prepositions. 

I. The following Prepositions are followed by the accusa- 
tive : — 

ad, to. erga, towards. 

adversiis, or extra, outside. 

adversum, towards, infra, below. 

ante, before. inter, among. 

apud, at, near. intra, inside. 

circa, or juxta, near. 

circum, about. 6b, on account of. 

circiter, about. penes, in the power, ultra, on the further 

cis, citra, this side, per, through. side, 

contra, against. pone, behind. 



post, after. 
praeter, beyond. 
propter, near. 
propter, on account of. 
secundum, next to. 
supra, above. 
trans, across. 



II. The following take the ablative : — 

a, ab, abs, from, by. 
absque, but for. 
coram, in presence of. 
cum, witli. 
de, down from. 



e, ex, out of. 

prae, in comparison with. 

pro, instead of. 

sine, without. 

tenus, up to, or as far as. 



III. The following take the accusative or ablative : - 
in, into, in; sub, under; subter, beneath; super, above. 



§ 43 CONJUNCTIONS. 47 

In and sub, when followed by the accusative, signify motion to 9 
when by the ablative, rest in, a place : as, 
in Italiam venit, atque in Etruria tres annos manebat, he 

came to Italy, and staid in Tuscany three years. 
sub montem ivit, ibique sub arbore consedit, he went to the 
foot of a hill, and sat down there under a tree. 

IV. The following require special explanation : — 

In, with the accusative, means into; ad, to {the neighborhood}, 
is used especially for persons ; ex (e), out of, is the reverse of in; 
ab (a), away from, is the reverse of ad; de, from, has reference 
to a part of the object : as, 

legati in castra veniunt, the ambassadors come into the camp. — 

Cic. Ros. Am. 9. 
ut proficiscantur ad L. Sullam, that they may go to Lucius 

Sulla. — Id. 
e patrimonio nudum expiilisti, you cast him naked out of his 

inheritance. — Id. 50. 
ab se injuriam propulsare, to ward off injury from himself. — 

Id. 
nihil de patris fortunis ad suam rem convertit, he has turned 

nothing to his own use from his father's fortunes. — Id. 49. 

43. Conjunctions. 

Conjunctions are more numerous, and their use is much 
more accurately distinguished, in Latin than in English. The 
following list includes those most important • — 

1. Et, and, connects independent words or clauses ; -que (en- 
clitic), combines closely into one connected idea; atque (some- 
times ac before consonants), adds with emphasis : as, 
fremit miles et tribunos centurionesque proditiSnis arguit, 

the soldiers rave and accuse the tribunes and centurions of 

treachery. — Tac. Hist. I. 80. 
manere ac deprehendi, an fugere et dispergi periculosius 

foret, whether it were more dangerous to remain and be 

seized, or to fly and scatter. — Id. 81. 
When the second member is negative, neque (nee) is used : as, 
redierunt in castra inviti neque innocentes, they return into 

the camp unwilling and not innocent. — Id. 82. 



48 CONJUNCTIONS. §43 

2. Sed and verum (more forcible), but, are used to contradict 
what precedes, — always after negatives ; at, yet, to introduce with 
emphasis a new consideration, especially in argument ; autem in 
the same way, especially in transitions, but with less force : as, 
non ad populi Roniani laudem, sed ad judicum crudeli- 

tatem servatus, preserved, not for the praise of the Roman 

people, but the cruelty of the judges. — Cic. Yerr. Y. 1. 
sit fur, sit sacrilegus ; at est bonus imperator, grant he is a 

thief, a sacriieqious wretch, —for all that he is a good 

commander. — Id. 
contagio autem ista servilis belli cur abs te praedicatur? 

but tohy is that infection of servile war brought forward by 

you? — Id. 3. 
non solum . . . verum etiam (a favorite expression of Cicero's) , 

not only . . . but also. — Cic. Cat. I. 10. 

3. Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (-ve) gives a choice; 
sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions, but is also 
used with words, especially two names for the same object : as, 
iibi potest ilia aetas aut calescere vel apricatione melius 

vel igni, aut vicissim umbris aquisve refrigerari salu- 
brius ? where can that period of life either enjoy warmth 
better, whether by sunshine or by fire ; or cool itself more 
healthfully, with shade or water? — Cic. de Senect. 16. 
sive amor sive amicitia, whether love or friendship. — Cic. de 
Amic. 27. 

4. Nam (namque) , for, introduces a sufficient cause; enim 
(etenim), an explanatory circumstance : as, 

id certe calamitate docti memoria retinere debemus. Nam 
turn, cum in Asia res magnas permulti amiserant, 
scimus Romae solutione impedita fidem concidisse, 
Non enim possunt una in civitate multi rem ac 
fortunas amittere ut non prures secum in eandem 
trahant calamitatem. This surely, taught by disaster, we 
ought to keep in memory. For when very many had lost 
great possessions in Asia, we know that at Borne credit fell 
by the stoppage of payments. For it is not possible that 
many lose their property and fortunes in one state without 
drawing more with them into the same calamity. — Cic. de 
Leg. Manil. 7. 



§ 43 CONJUNCTIONS. 49 

5. Ergo, therefore, is used for things demonstrated ; itaque, in 
proofs from the nature of things ; lgitur, then (a weak ergo), 
in passing from one stage of the argument to another ; idcirco, 
for this reason, to call attention to a special argument: as, 

ergo idcirco turpis haec culpa est, quod duas res sanctis- 
simas violat, therefore, for this reason, this is a base mis- 
deed, because it violates two most holy things. — Cic. Rose. 
Am. 39. 

nee se comitem illius furoris sed ducem praebuit. Itaque 
hac amentia quaestione nova perterritus in Asiam 
profugit. Nulla est lgitur excusatio peccati, si amici 
causa peccaveris, nor did he offer himself as an associate 
of this mad enterprise, but a leader. Therefore he fled to 
Asia, scared by a fresh accusation on account of this mad- 
ness. It is then no excuse for a wrong, that you have done 
it for a friend. — Id. de Amic. 11, 37. 

6. Quia, because, regularly introduces a fact; quod, an allega- 
tion ; quoniam, since, has reference to motives : as, 

illos quamquam sunt hostes, tamen, quia sunt elves, monitos 
volo, although they are enemies, still, because they are citi- 
zens, I wish them to be admonished. — Cic. Cat. II. 12. 

quoniam nondum est perscriptum senatus consultum, ex 
memoria vobis quid senatus censuerit, exponam. 
Primum mihi gratiae aguntur, quod virtute, consilio 
providentia mea respublica maximis periculis sit 
liberata, since the decree of the Senate has not yet been 
written out, I will recite to you from memory what the 
Senate voted. In the first place, thanks are rendered to me 
on the ground that, by my courage, judgment, and foresight, 
the commonwealth has been freed from the greatest peril. — 
Id. III. 6. 

7. Quum (cum), when, is always a relative conjunction ; 
quando is also used interrogatively : as, 

cum tacent, clamant, ivhen they are silent, they cry out. — Cic. 

Cat. I. 8. 
O rus, quando ego te adspiciam ? country, when shall I see 

thee? — Hor. Sat. II. 6, 60. 
3 



50 FORMATION OF WORDS. §44 

8. Et . . . et means both . . . and ; turn . . . turn and (more com- 
monly) cum . . . turn have the same meaning, but emphasize the 
second member : as, 

et privatim et publice, both in private and in public. — Cic. 

Verr. V. 1. 
turn deprecabitur a vobis, turn etiam pro suo jure contendet, 

he will not only entreat from you, but will claim as his 

right. — Id. 

9. Atque (ac) is used after words of similarity : as, 

ratio ordoque agminis aliter se habebat ac Belgae ad Ner- 
vios detulerant, the arrangement and order of the army 
was otherwise than as the Belgians had reported to the 
Nervii. — CfBs. B.G. II. 19. 

10. Autem, enim, vero always stand second or third in the 
clause ; the same is generally true of Igitur, and often of tamen. 
— See 2, 4, 5. 

11. The same fondness for connecting one sentence closely 
with the preceding which caused the use of relatives at the com- 
mencement of a sentence (§48, iv.), led to the employment of 
nam que, etenim, neque, &c, in the same place: as, 

namque me lupus fugit inermem, for a wolf fled from me, 
although unarmed. — Hor. Carm. I. 22, 9. 

44. Formation of Words. 
I. Nouns derived from Nouns. 

1. Those ending in um or etum signify a collection or 
group: as, 

arboretum, grove; arbustum, orchard (arbor). 

2. Diminutives usually end in olus or tilus, often with 
the feminine and neuter terminations : as, 

filiolus, little son (films) ; arbuscula, shrub (arbor) ; curricu- 
lum, little car (currus), or race-course. 

3. Patronymics generally end in ades or ides (fern, is) : as, 
Aeneades, son of Aeneas (plural, companions') ; Peleides (eontr. 

P elides) son of Peleus; Tyndaris, daughter of Tyndarvs. 



§44 FORMATION OF WORDS. 51 

II. Nouns derived from Adjectives. 

Nouns derived from Adjectives have the termination ia, 
Itas, or tudo : as, 

brevitas, shortness (brevis) ; audacia, boldness (andax) ; mag- 
nitudo, greatness (magnus). 

III. Nouns derived from Verbs 

1. Nouns formed by adding or (fern, rix) to the supine 
stem, denote the person who does the action : as, 

victor, victrix, conqueror (vinco). 

2. Those formed by adding io or US (fourth dec.) to the 
supine stem, express abstractly the idea of the verb : as, 
motio or motus, movement (moveo). 

3. Those formed by adding men or mentum to the present 
stem, indicate the subject, object, or means of the action : as, 
flumen, stream or river (fluo) ; documentum, proof (doceo). 

IY. Adjectives derived from Nouns. 

1. The ending eus or aceus denotes material : as, 
aureus, golden (aurum) ; chartaceus, of paper (charta) . 

2. The endings 1CUS and llis denote belonging to : as, 
civicus and civilis, belonging to a citizen (civis). 

3. The terminations osus and lentus indicate fulness : as, 
copiosus, abundant (copia) ; opulentus, wealthy (opes). 

4. Many in tus are formed like participles : as, 
auratus, gilded (aurum) ; auritus, long-eared (auris) ; cornutus, 

horned (cornu). 

5. Adjectives from proper names end in anus: as, 
Pompeianus, of Pompey ; Romanus, Roman. 

6. From names of places are also adjectives in ensis, Icus, 
and as (gen. atis) : as, 

Cannensis, of Cannae ; Pharsalicus, of Pharsalus ; Arpinas, 
of Arpinum. 



52 FORMATION OF WORDS. §44 

Y. Adjectives derived from Verbs. 

1. Verbal adjectives in bundus (chiefly from verbs of the 
first conjugation) imply condition : as, 

errabundus, apt to stray (erro) ; moribundus, at the point of 
death (morior.) 

2. Those in ldus (chiefly from neuter verbs), denote 
quality: as, 

calidus, warm (caleo) ; callidus, cunning (calleo) ; lucidus, 
bright (luceo). 

3. Those in ax, denote a propensity, generally aggressive : 
as, 

audax, bold (audeo) ; pugnax, full of fight (pugno). 

4. Those in llis and bllis, denote possibility or aptness: 
as, 

fragilis, frail (frango) ; amabilis, lovely (amo). 

VI. Compound Nouns. 
Examples of these are — 

patricida, one who kills his father (pater, caedo). 
tubicen, trumpeter (tuba, cano) . 
tibicen, piper (tibia, cano). 
armiger, armor-bearer (arma, gero). 
signifer, standard bearer (signum, fero). 
pontifex, priest, (bridge-maker, pons, facio). 
auceps, bird-catcher (avis, capio). 

There are numerous other derivative forms, but the above are 
those which occur most frequently. 

Many words are sometimes classed as Derivatives, which are 
formed by simply adding the termination of the noun, adjective, 
or verb, to the same root or stem : as, from reg- rule, are formed 
rego, 1 govern or direct; rex (gen. regis), king; regina, queen; 
regalis, regius, royal ; regnum, royalty ; regio, district under a 
common rule. 



PART SECOND. 

USE OF WORDS. (SYNTAX.) 



45. Definitions. 

1. The Subject of a proposition is the person or thing 
spoken of ; the Predicate is that which is stated of the Subject. 

2. A word is said to Agree with another, when it is in a 
corresponding grammatical form ; it is said to Govern an- 
other, when it requires it to be in a particular Case. 

The word so governed is called the Object. 

3. The verb esse, to be, when it connects an attribute with 
its subject, is called the Copula ; otherwise, it is called the 
Substantive Verb. 

I. RULES OF AGREEMENT. 
46. Of Nouns. 

A Noun used to describe another agrees with it in 
Case ; this is called Apposition : as, 

externus timor, maximum concordiae vinculum, fear of the 
foreigner, the strongest bond of union. — Liv. II. 39. 

quattuor hie, primum omen, equos vidi, I saw here four horses, 
the first omen. — Virg. iEn. III. 537. 

Ancum Marcium regem populus creavit, the people created 
Ancus Marches king. — Liv. I. 32. 

quae tua est ista vita? what is that life of 'yours? — Cic. Cat. 
I. 1, 7. (vita in the predicate, in apposition with the in- 
terrogative pronoun quae.) 



54 OF ADJECTIVES. §47 

litteras Graecas senex didici, / learned Greek letters when an 
old man (senex in appos. with ego understood). 

Aristaeus qui olivae dicitur inventor, Aristceus, who is called 
the discoverer of the olive. — Cic. N. D. III. 18. 

1. Also in Gender when it can : as, 

oleae Minerva inventrix, Minerva the discoverer of the olive. — 
Virg. G. I. 18. 

2. A Noun in apposition with the locative case is put in the 
ablative with or without the preposition in (§ 55, in. 3) : as, 
Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe et copiosa, at Antioch, 

once a famous and wealthy city. — Cic. pro Arch. 3. 
milites Albae constiterunt in urbe munita, the soldiers halted 
at Alba, a fortified town. — Id. Phil. IV. 2. 

3. The genitive is used in apposition with possessive pro- 
nouns, taking the gender and number of the implied sub- 
ject: as, 

in nostro omnium fletu, amid the tears of us all. — Cic. pro 
Mil. 34. 

47. Of Adjectives. 

Adjectives, also Adjective Pronouns and Participles, 
agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case: 
as, 

consularia munera, the consular duties ; hac lege, by this law ; 
uno interfecto, one being slain. 

I. With two or more nouns the adjective is plural : as, 
NIsus et Euryalus primi, Kisus and Euryalus first. —Virg. 

^En. V. 394. 

II. With nouns of different genders it either (1) agrees 
with the nearest: as, 

si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fuit, if any thing, if 
any man, if any time, ivas fit. — Cic. pro Mil. 7. 

Or (2) it may be masculine, if they are living beings, neuter 
if things without life : as, 



§47 



OF ADJECTIVES. 55 



labor (m.) voluptasque (r.) societate quadam inter se na- 
turali sunt juncta (n.), labor and pleasure are joined to 
one another by a certain natural alliance. — Liv. V. 4. 
uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi, then his wife and children em- 
braced him. — Id. II. 40. 
Or (3) it may be masculine, even if the noun is of a different 
gender, when the existence of male beings is implied : as, 
coloniae aliquot deductae, Prisci Latini appellati, colonies 
ivere established [of men] called Prisci Latini. — Liv. I. 3. 
pars certare parati, a part ready to contend. — Virg. ^En. V. 
108. 
This is called Synesis, or constructio ad sensum. 

III. Adjectives are often used as nouns, meaning persons 
or things : as, 

didicit jam dives avarus laudare disertos, the rich miser has 
already learned to compliment the eloquent. — Juv. VII. 30. 
So, constantly, with the possessive pronouns, in military or 
other special use : as, 
nostri, the men of our party ; Caesar hortatur suos, Ccesar 

cheers his men. 
So a noun is sometimes used, and even compared, as an ad- 
jective : as, 
admodum puer, quite a boy ; magis vir, more of a man. 

. IV. A neuter adjective is used as a noun (1) to denote the 
abstract quality : as, 
tanta vis est honesti, ut speciem utilitatis obscuret, so great 

is the force of honor, that it dims the show of gain. — Cic. 

de Off. III. 11. 
But where the meaning would be doubtful, the feminine is used 
with res. Hence adjectives of the third declension are thus used 
only in the nom. and ace. : as, 
loquitur de omnibus rebus (not de omnibus), he talks about 

every thing. 

(2) In apposition with a noun of different gender : as, 
varium et mutabile semper foemina, woman, ever fickle and 
changefid. — Virg. iEn. IV. 569, 



56 OF ADJECTIVES. §47 

(3) In apposition with an infinitive clause or phrase : as, 
aliud est errare Caesarem nolle, aliud nolle misereri, it is 

one thing to be unwilling that Ccesar should err, another to 
be unwilling that he should pity. — Cic. pro Lig. 5. 

V. Adjectives (especially those formed from proper names), 
as well as the possessive pronouns, are often used instead of 
a genitive : as, 

pcies Pompeiana, Pompetfs line of battle. — Caes. B.C. III. 94. 
puerile regnum, the reign of a boy. 

This is always the case with the personal pronouns : as, 
domus mea (not mei) , my house. 

Also, in such phrases as nostra refert, it concerns us. (See 
§50, v. 4.) 

VI. An adjective in Lat : n is sometimes best rendered by 
other forms in English : as, 

te quam laetus inviso, hoiv joyfully I visit thee. — Catull. 31, 4. 
primus venit, he was the first to come. 

eos se invito adesse dixit, he said they were there against 
his will. 

VII. When two qualities of an object are compared, both 
adjectives are usually in the comparative : as, 

longior quam latior acies erat, the line was longer than it was 
broad. — Uv. XXVII. 48. 

VIII. Superlatives denoting order and succession, also 
medius, caeterus, and reliquus, are used to designate a part : 
as, 

in colle medio, on the middle of the hill. — Cses. B.G. I. 24. 
summus mons, the top of the height. — Id. 22. 
So, sera nocte, late at night. 

IX. Alius . . . alius, one . . . another, implies that the predi- 
cate is differently applied in each case : as, 

duo reges alius alia via civitatem auxerunt, two kings en- 
larged the state, each in his own way. — Li v. I. 21. 

cum alius alii subsidium ferrent, as one helped one, and one 
another. — Caes. B.G. II. 26. 



§48 OF RELATIVES. 57 

48. Of Relatives. 

Relatives serve (1) as nouns in the subordinate 
clause in which they stand ; (2) as connectives, re- 
lating directly to some word in the main proposition, 
which is called the Antecedent. 

The use of relatives is much more frequent in Latin than it is 
in English, owing to the fondness of the ancients for connecting a 
sentence very closely to the preceding. (See §43, 11.) 

I. Relatives agree with their antecedents in gender, num- 
ber, and person, their case depending on the construction of 
the clause in which they stand : as, 

utrum iUe qui postulat ad tantum bellum legatum quern 
velit idoneus non est qui impetret? is not he who 
claims for such a war the deputy whom he will, Jit to get 
him°l — Cic. pro Lege Manil. 19. 

adsum qui feci, here am 1 who did it. — iEn. IX. 427. 

II. The relative often agrees in gender with the noun 
(appositive) in its own clause rather than with the antece- 
dent : as, 

mare etiam quern Neptunum esse dicebas, the sea, too, which 
you said was Neptune. — Cic. N. D. III. 20. 

III. The antecedent is often repeated in the relative 
clause : as, 

loci natiira erat haec quern locum nostri castris delegerant, 

the nature of the ground whicli our men had chosen for the 
camp was this. — Cses. B. G. II. 18. 
caussam dicit ea lege qua lege senatores soli tenentur, 

he pleads his case under a law by which only senators are 
bound. — Cic. pro Cluent. 57. 

Sometimes it stands only in the relative clause : as, 

quas res in consiilatu nostro gessimus atfcigit hie versibus, 

lie has touched in verse the things which we did in our con- 
sulship. — Cic. Arch. 1 1 . 
habetis milites quam petistis f acultatem, soldiers I you have 
the chance you icanted. — Cat's. B.C. YI. 8. 

3* 



58 VERBS. §49 

In such cases, the demonstrative is or hie usually stands 
in the principal clause : as, 

quae pars civitatis calamitatem popiilo Romano intulerat 
ea princeps poenas persolvit, that part of the state which 
had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first to 
pay the penalty. — Caes. B.G. I. 12. 
In a sentence of this class, the relative clause in Latin gene- 
rally stands first ; but in translating, the noun should be trans- 
ferred, in its proper case, to the antecedent clause, as in the 
example just quoted. 

IV. A relative often stands at the beginning of a clause or 
sentence where in English a demonstrative must be used : as, 

quorum quod simile factum ? what ever happened like this f 

— Cic. Cat. IV. 8. 

quod si fecit — qua impudentia est — eumne testem im- 
probabit quern judicem probarit? If he does this — 
and he is shameless enough for it — ivill he challenge one as 
witness whom he has approved as juror ? — Cic. Ros. 
Com. 15. 

V. Id quod or quae res is used instead of quod to relate 
to an idea or group of words previously expressed : as, 

[obtrectatum est] Gabinio dicam, an Pompeio ? an utrique 

— id quod est verius ? [insult has been offered] shall I 
say to Gabinius, or Pompey ? or to both, 'which is nearer the 
truth? —Cic. de Leg. Manil. 19. 

49. Verbs. 
Verbs agree with their subject in person and num- 
ber ; in gender also in the periphrastic forms : as, 
ggo statuo, / resolve ; oratio est habita, the plea was spoken. 

I. With two or more singular subjects the verb will be in 
the plural; and if they are of different persons, it will be 
in the first rather than the second, or the second than the 
third: as, 

si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus, if you and 
Tullia are well, I and Cicero are well. — Cic. Fam. XIV. 5. 



§50 GENITIVE. 59 

But the verb will be singular if the subjects are considered 

as one whole : as, 

haec tua justitia et lenitas animi florescit quotidie magis, 

this justice and gentleness of yours flowers daily more and 
more. — Cic. pro Marc. 4. 

So, too, if they are joined by disjunctives : as, 

neque fides neque jusjurandum neque ilium misericordia 

repressit, not faith, nor oath, nor mercy, checked him. — 

Ter. Ad. III. 2, 8. 

A collective noun may in poetry take a plural verb: as, 
quaerunt pars aditum, a part seek the entrance. — Virg. 2En. 
IX. 507. 

II. The personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted, 
unless emphatic: thus, 

loquor = / speak ; ego loquor = it is I that speak. 

III. The infinitive is sometimes used instead of the per- 
sonal form in narrative ; this is called the Historical Infini- 
tive : as, 

turn Gatilina polliceri tabulas novas, then Catiline promised 

an abolition of debts. — Sallust, Cat. 21. 
ego instare, ut mihi responderet, I pressed him to answer me. 

— Cic. in Verr. II. 77. 

II. RULES OF GOVERNMENT. 
50. Genitive. 

The Genitive, in its primary meaning, denotes 
Origin or Possession. It is used — 

I. To define more precisely the meaning of a noun (Sub- 
jective Genitive) : as, 

potentia Pompei formidolosa erat, the power of Pompey teas 

alarming. — Sail. Cat. 19. 
nondum maturus imperio Ascanius Aeneae films erat, As- 

canivs, son of Aeneas, was not yet ripe for command. — 

Liv. I. 3. 



60 GENITIVE. §50 

1. A phrase or clause with esse, to be, is often limited by the 
genitive ; this occurs most frequently with adjectives and abstract 
nouns : as, 

neque sui judicii [esse] decernere, it was not for his judg- 
ment to decide. — Caes. B.C. I. 35. 

timidi est optare necem, it belongs to a coward to desire death. 
— Ov. Met. IV. 115. 

The genitive used in this way often takes the place of a neuter 
adjective : as, sapientis est (not sapiens est), it is wise. 

Instead of the genitive of personal pronouns, the neuter of the 
possessive is used : as, 

mentiri non est meum, it is not mine to lie. — Tcr. 

2. The genitive of quality requires an adjective : as, 
vir summae honestatis, a man of the highest honor. 

The ablative is also used in this way : as, 
vir summo consllio, a man of the highest prudence. (§ 54, n.) 

3. The genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in apposi- 
tion ; as, 

nomen insaniae, the xoord insanity. — Cic. Tusc. III. 4. 

4. A genitive of specification, after adjectives, is common in 
the poets and late prose writers : as, 

integer vitae scelerisque purus, upright of life and clear of 
gu iU.— Uor. Od. I. 22, 1. 

II. To denote the Whole, after words signifying a Part 
(Partitive Genitive). These are — 

1. Nouns or Pronouns: as, 

pars militum, part of the soldiers ; quis nostrum? which of us ? 

2. Numerals, Comparatives, and Superlatives : as, 

alter consilium, one of the (tico) consuls. 

plurimum totius Galliae equitatu valet, is strongest in cavalry 
of all Gaul. — Caes. B.G. Y. 3. 

3. Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns : as, 

tantum spatii, so much space ; aliquid nummorum, a few 'pence ; 
plana urbis, the level parts of the town. 



§50 GENITIVE. 61 

4. Adverbs, especially of Place and Quantity : as, 
satis pecuniae, enough money ; ubinam gentium sumus? where 
in the world are we ? inde loci, next in order. 

Instead of the Partitive Genitive, ex with the ablative is often 
used : as, 
unus ex tribunis, one of the tribunes. 

III. To denote the object of some action implied by the 
governing word (Objective Genitive). Words of this 
class are — 

1. Nouns expressing action or mental emotion: as, 

gratia beneficii, gratitude for a favor. 

laudator temporis acti, one who praises the past. — Hor. de 

Arte Poetica, 173. 
injuria mulierum Sabinarum, the wrong done the Sabine women. 
memoria nostri tua, your memory of us. — Cic. Fam. XII. 17. 
vim suorum pro suo periculo defendebant, they parried the 

attack on their comrades as if it icere their own peril. — 

Caes. B.C. III. 110. 
So, rarely, with the possessive pronouns : as, 
periculo invidiae meae, with risk of odium against me. — Cic. 

Cat. II. 2. 

2. Adjectives of Fulness or Want, and those expressing feeling 
or desire : as, 

sermonis plenus orator, a speaker full of words. — Cic. Brut. 68. 

erat plena lictorum et imperiorum prSvincia, the province 
ivas full of lictors and officials. — Caes. B.C. III. 32. 

Cethegus qui dixisset se semper bonorum ferramentorum 
studiosum fuisse, Cethegus, who had said that he had al- 
ways been a fancier of good cutlery. — Cic. Cat. III. 5. 

3. Verbal Adjectives, especially with the terminations ax and 
ns : as, 

erat in oppido multitudo insolens belli, there was in the town 
a population unused to war. — Caes. B.C. II. 36. 

habetis ducem memorem vestri oblitum sui, you have a leader 
who thinks of you and forgets himself. — Cic. Cat. IV. 9. 

justum ac tenacem prSpositi virum, a man just and steadfast 
to his purpose. — Hor. Od. III. 3, 1. 



G2 GENITIVE. §50 

So the participle of active verbs, when expressing not an act, 
but a quality or disposition : as, 

amans concordiae, a lover of peace. 

The relation of the Objective Genitive may also be expressed 
by prepositions : as, 

odium in Caesarem, hatred of Ccesar. 

IV. As the object of the following classes of verbs : — 

1. Of remembering, forgetting, and reminding, — when used 
generally, to denote the subject on which the mind is exercised : 
as, 

obliviscere caedis atque incendiarum, turn your mind from 
slaughter and conflagrations. — Cic. Cat. I. 3. 

But the accusative must be used with these verbs to express a 
particular thing remembered or forgotten : as, 
hoc te admoneo, I remind you of this. 

2. Of accusing, condemning, and acquitting, to express the 
charge, and sometimes the penalty : as, 

C. Marium sceleris ac parricidii nefarii mortuum condem- 
nabimus ? shall we convict Caius Marius, now dead, of 
crime and infamous treason 6 ? — Cic. pro Rabir. 10. 

C. Gracchum capitis damnaverunt, they condemned Caius 
Gracchus to death. 

The crime may be expressed by the ablative with de ; the pun- 
ishment by the ablative alone : as, 

de ambitu criminabatur, he was charged with bribery. 
vitia autem hommum atque fraudes damnis, ignominiis, 
vinciilis, verberibus, exiliis, morte, damnantur, while 

the vices and crimes of men are punished with fines, dis- 
honor, chains, scourgings, exile, death. — Cic. de Or. I. 43. 

3. Misereor, miseresco, pity : also, the Impersonals miseret, 
pity; piget, disgust ; poenitet, repent ; pudet, shame ; taedet or 
pertaesum est, weary, with the accusative of the person affected : 
as, 

me meorum factorum atque consiliorum numquam poenite- 
bit, / shall never repent of my acts and counsels. — Cic. 
Cat. IV. 10. 



§ 51 DATIVE. 63 

4. Interest and refert, it concerns, — the subject of the verb 
being a neuter pronoun, an infinitive clause, or the subjunctive 
with ut: as, 

omnem potentiam ad unum conferri pacis interfuit, it was 

the interest of peace that all power should be put in one 

mails hands. — Tac. Hist. I. 1. 
Instead of the genitive of the personal pronoun, the possessive 
is used in this construction, in the abl. sing. fern. : as, 
quid id refert tua ? how does it concern you ? — Plaut. Rud. 178. 
Refert is rarely used in any other way. 

Xote. — Interest is used in the three following ways : — 
(1.) Impersonally, with the genitive: as, interest exercitus, 

it is for the advantage of the army ; 
(2.) Personally, with the dative: as, interest exercitui, he is 

present with the army ; 
(3.) With the accusative and prepositions : as, interest inter 

exercitum et castra, either, he is between — or, there is a 

difference between — the army and camp. 

5. Some verbs of plenty and want : as, 

quid est quod defensionis indigeat ? ivhat is there that needs 
defence / — Cic. Ros. Am. 12. 

6. Also, sometimes, potior, get possession of; as always in the 
expression potiri rerum, to be masters of affairs. — Cic. Fam. I. 8. 

The Genitive is also used after the adverbs pridie, the day 
before ; postridie, the day after : as, 
postridie ejus diei, the next day. — Caes. B.G. II. 12. 

Xote. — For the Genitive of Price, see § 54, ix. tj 

51. Dative. 

The dative (to or for) denotes the person or thing 
whose interest is affected. It is used — 

I. With words expressing likeness, fitness, nearness, and 
the like : as, 

sirnHis patri, like his father, — (similis patris would imply like- 
ness of character). 
res incommodas urbi, things harmful to the city. 



64 DATIVE. § 51 

With some adjectives of this class prepositions may also be 
used: as, 

aptus ad rem militarem,^ for military service. 
si Iniquus es in me judex, if you are an unfair judge towards 
me. — Cic. Fam. II. 1. 

When the dative is required by the structure of the sentence 
as a whole, rather than by any single word, it is called the dative 
of advantage and disadvantage (dativus commodi et incom- 
modi) : as, 
sine dote posco tuam sSrorem filio, / ask your daughter for 

my son without a dowry. — Plaut. Trin. II. 4, 98. 
laudavit mini fratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for 
me : laudavit fratrem meum would imply no such motive). 
Othoni in Hispaniam comes, a companion of Otho?s into Spain. 
— Tac. Hist. I. 22. 

To signify in defence of pro must be used, as : pro pa- 
tria mori, to die for one's country. — Hor. Carm. III. 2, 13. 

Mihi, tibi, nobis, and vobis are used in questions and expres- 
sions of wonder and praise, to denote a certain interest felt: as, 
quid mihi Celsus agit ? pray, what is Celsus about ? — Hor. 
Ep. I. 3, 15. This is called the Ethical Dative (dativus ethicus). 

II. As the indirect object of transitive verbs which take 
the accusative of the direct object : as, 

hunc librum tibi mitto, / send you this book — (i.e., for your 
use; motion towards being expressed by ad with the ac- 
cusative). 

Pompeio in hortos nunciavit, he sent word to Pompey to the 
gardens. — Cic. Mil. 24. 

A few verbs of this class, as dono, present, induo, clothe, 
circumdo, surround, may also take the accusative and ablative : 
as, 

donat coronas multibus, he gives wreaths to the soldiers ; or, 
donat milites cbronis, he presents the soldiers with wreaths. 

III. With many verbs (transitive in English) which sig- 
nify favor, obedience, command, pardon, envy, and the like : as, 

cur mihi inviies? why do you envy me 6 * 
civltati serviebat, lie served the state. 



§ 51 DATIVE. 65 

So occasionally with nouns derived from such verbs ; as, 
invidia mini, envy towards me. 

These verbs can be used in the passive only impersonally, 
in which case the dative may be retained : as, 
cm parci potuit? who could be spared? — Liv. XXL 14. (§ 73,. i.) 

For the' dative with other Impersonate, see § 39, I. 

Sometimes the accusative of the thing is used with the dative 
of the person after such verbs as impero, command or require; 
invideo, envy or grudge ; aequo, make equal ; minor, threaten ; 
cedo, yield: as, 

imperat oppidanis decern talenta, he exacts ten talents of the 
townspeople. 

IV. With many verbs usually governing the accusative 
when advantage or disadvantage is implied : thus, consulo, 
with ace. consult, with dat. consult one's interest ; convenio, 
with ace. meet \ with dat. suit ; metuo, timeo, with ace. fear, 
with dat. be apprehensive for ; moderor, tempero, with acc» 
arrange, with dat. control* So caveo, beware, prospicio, 
foresee, and others. 

Medeor, medico, heal; praestolor, wait ; and ausculto, 
hearken, may take either dative or accusative* 

V. After many verbs compounded with the following 
prepositions, and retaining their force in the compound : ad, 
ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, re (inseparable), sub, and 
super : as, 

omnibus interfui proeliis, I took part in all the battles. — Cses. 

B.C. III. 87. 
hibernis Labienum praeposuit, he placed Labienus in charge 

of the winter-quarts s. — Ca?s. B.G. I. 54. 
Also active compounds of circum, de, and ex: as, 
classe Caesari erepta, the fleet being snatched away from Ccesar* 

— Cses. B.C. III. 111. 

But when there is a distinct indication of place, the preposition is 
repeated : as, 

detrahere anniilum de digito, to withdraw a ring from the 
finger. 



6Q ACCUSATIVE. §52 

VI. After esse, to be, denoting the possessor : as, 
est mihi liber, / have a book. 

erat Dario mite et tractabile ingenium, Darius had a gentle 
and yielding temper. — Curt. III. 2. 

This is the usual form to denote possession ; habeo, I have, 
generally signifying, rather, / hold. So with the nominative of 
the gerund or gerundive : as, 
mihi est moriendum, it is for me to die ; (i.e. I must die). 

VII. To signify the purpose or end, frequently joined with 
another dative of the person : as, 

tertiam aciem nostris sub3idio misit, he sent the third line as 

a relief to our men. — Cass. B.G. I. 52. 
turn sunt carmina cordi, then songs are a delight. — Lucr. V. 

1389. 

VIII. After the gerundive, to denote the person to whom 
the necessity exists : as, 

liaec vobis provincia est defendenda, this province is for you 

to defend [to be defended by you]. — Cic. Leg. Man. 6, 14. 

Similarly with perfect participles ; with videri, seem ; and, in 

the poets and later writers, with almost any passive verb : as, 

nulla tuarum audita mihi neque visa sororum, no one of thy 

sisters has been either heard or seen by me. — Virg. 2En. I. 

326. 

52. Accusative. 

The Accusative is the case of the direct object. It 
is used — 

I. After transitive verbs : as, 
legationem suscepit, he undertook the embassy. — Cses. B.G. I. 3. 
Many neuter verbs are sometimes used transitively : as, 

meum casum luctumque doluerunt, they have bewailed my mis- 
fortune and grief — Cic. Sest. 69, 145. 

Titius, Pindarici fontis qui non expalluit haustus, Titius, 
who did not turn pale at draughts of the Pindaric fount. — 
Hor. Ep. I. 3, 10. 



§52 ACCUSATIVE. 67 

So occasionally in the passive : as, 

ridetur ab omni conventu, he is laughed at by the whole assem- 
bly.— Mot. Sat. I. 7, 22. 

This occurs especially with verbs of tasting, smelling, &c: as, 

Epicurus, homo minime resipiens patriam, Epicurus, a man 
ivho smacked very little [i.e. possessed very little of the 
characteristic wit] of his native country . — Cic. N.D. II. 17. 

Also with accusatives of meaning kindred to that of the verb : as, 

vivere vitam, to live a life. — Cic. de Sen. 21. 

II. After many neuter verbs, which become active when 
compounded with prepositions. These include — 

1. Verbs of motion: as, 

delubra deum adibis, thou wilt visit the shrines of the gods. — 
Lucr. VI. 75. 

2. Compounds of circum: as, 

elves qui circumstant senatum, the citizens who group about 
Hie Senate. — Cic. Cat. I. 8. 

III. As a secondary object (1) after verbs of asking and 
teaching ; also celo, hide : as, 

hoc vos doceo, I teach you this. — Cic. de Orat. II. 47. 

nihil supra deos lacesso, nee potentem amicum largiora 
flagito, 1 do not importune the gods for any thing more, 
nor do I demand more liberal gifts from a powerful friend. 
. — Hor. Carm. II. 18, 11. 

So with passives : as, 

Cato, rogatus sententiam, orationem habuit, Cato, being asked 
his opinion, delivered a speech. — Sail. Cat. 52. 

The ablative with a preposition is often used after these verbs : 
always, to express the person, after peto, postiilo, and quaero: as, 
pacem ab Romanis petierunt, they begged peace from the Ro- 
mans. — Cges. B.G. II. 13. 

(2) After active verbs compounded with trans, across: as, 

Hiberum copias trajecit, he threw his forces across the Iber. — 
Liv. XXI. 23. 

(3) In Apposition after verbs of choosing, &c. (See § 46.) 



68 VOCATIVE. §53 

IV. In neuter pronouns and adjectives of number (in an 
adverbial sense), especially with neuter verbs : as, 

quidve moror, or why do I delay ? — Virg. iEn. II. 101. 
pauca milites hortatus, having briefly exhorted the soldiers. — 
Sail. Jug. 49. 

So id temporis, at this time. — Cic. Cat. I. 4, 10. 

Similar to this is the so-called Syneedochical or Greek Accusa- 
tive, used by the poets to denote the part affected : as, 
flavaque caput nectentur oliva, and their heads shall be 
wreathed with yellow olive. —Virg. Ma. V. 309. 

So with the passive (used reflectively) of cingo and similar 
verbs : as, 

inutile ferrum cingitur, he girds on his useless sword. — Virg. 
iEn. II. 510. 

V. In exclamations : as, 

O fortunatam rempublicam ! fortunate republic! — Cic. Cat. 
II. 4. 

VI. As subject of the infinitive in dependent clauses, 
after verbs of knowing, thinking, hearing, wishing, and tell- 
ing (verba sentiendi et deolarandi). 

See, for examples of this use, Oratio Obliqua (§ 67, i. 2), and 
Intermediate Clauses (§70, in.). 

Note. — For the accusatives of time and place, see § 55. — For 
the accusative after prepositions, see § 56. 

53. Vocative. 

The Vocative is used in direct address : as, 

Septimi, Gades aditure mecum, O Septimius, who art about to 
go with me to Gades. — Hor. Carm. II. 6, 1. 

Sometimes the nominative is used instead : as, 

almae filius Maiae, son of benignant Maia. —Hor. Carm. I. 

2, 43. 
audi, tu populus Albanus, hear, thou people ofAlba.—hiY. I. 24, 



§ 54 ABLATIVE. 69 



54. Ablative. 

The Ablative, in general, implies either instrument 
or separation. It is used — 

I. To express cause, means, and specification : as, 

vultu Milonis perterritus, scared by the countenance of Milo. 

— Cic. Mil. 15, 41. 

nee tantum Phoebo gaudet Parnasia rupes, nor does the cliff 
of Parnassus delight so much in Phoebus. — Virg. Buc. 
VI. 29. 

ferro rumpenda per hostes est via, a road must be cut through 
the enemy with the sword. — Id. Mn. X. 371. 

suo jure noster iUe Ennius sanctos appeUat poetas, with pecu- 
liar right our Ennius calls poets holy. — Cic. Arch. 8, 18. 

certe non tulit ullos haec civitas aut gloria clariores, aut 
auctoritate gravi5res, aut humanitate politiores, cer- 
tainly this city never produced any more illustrious in glory, 
or weighty in aidhority, or refined in culture. — Cic. de 
Orat. II. 37. 

The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is 
expressed by the ablative alone; the object exciting the emotion 
requires ob or propter with the accusative : as, 

non ob praedam aut spoliandi cupldlne, not for booty, or 
through the desire of plundering.- — Tac. Hist. I. 63. 

So causa and- gratia with a genitive, or causa with a posses- 
sive : as, 

legatos ad Caesarem sui purgandi gratia mittunt, they send 
deputies to Ccesar for the purpose of clearing themselves. 

— Caes. B.G. VII. 43. 

mea causa, for my sake. — Ter. Eun. V. 8, 40 (1070). 

With living beings, instrumentality is expressed by per, or by 
opera with a genitive or possessive : as, 

per Antiochum, by the aid of Antiochus. — Liv. XXXIII. 18. 
mea opera, by my aid. — Cic. de Sen. 4. So per vim (as well 
as the ablative vi), by force. — -Caes. B.G. I. 14. 

Note. — For the ablative of crime and penalty, see § 50, iv. 2. 



70 ABLATIVE. §54 

II. With an adjective or a limiting genitive, to denote 
manner and quality : as, 
populus magna voce me vere jurasse juravit, the people swore 

with a loud voice that I had sworn truly. — Cic. Fam. V. 2. 
more hominum invident, after the manner of men they envy. — 

Cic. pro Balbo, 26. 
animo meliore sunt quam pars patriciorum, they are better 

disposed than a portion of the patricians. — Cic. Cat. II. 12. 
hominis esse specie deos confitendum est, we must admit 

that the gods are of human form. — Cic. N.D. I. 18. 

Manner is also expressed by cum, and in a few cases by the 
ablative alone : as, 

minus cum cura, less carefully. — Plaut. M.G. III. 1, 6. 
hoc onus feram studio et industria, / will bear this burden 
zealously and diligently. — Cic. Rose. Am. 4. 

Accompaniment properly requires cum : as, 

nostri cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumen transgressi, 

our troops having crossed the river with the stingers and 
archers. — Cass. B.G. II. 19. (But subsequebatur om- 
nibus copiis, he followed close with all his forces. — Id.) 

There is no essential distinction between the ablative and the 
genitive of quality (§50, i. 2), except that the genitive is exclu- 
sively used to denote measure, classification, or requirement : as, 
suadere principi multi laboris, to persuade a prince is a thing 
requiring great labor. — Tac. Hist. I. 15. 

III. With the verbs ii tor, use ; fruor, enjoy ; fungor, 
fulfil ; potior, get ; vescor, feed, and most of their com- 
pounds : as, 

utar vestra benignitate, / will avail myself of your kindness. 
— Cic. Arch. 8. 

Potior also governs the genitive, as always in the expression, 
potiri rerum, to possess the power. — Cic. Fam. L 8. 

IV. After the adjectives dignus, worthy ; indignus, un- 
worthy, and fretus, relying upon : as, 

dea carmine digna est, the goddess is worthy of song. — Ov. 
Met. Y. 344. 



§54 ABLATIVE. 71 

V. After comparatives, instead of quam, than: as, 
ocior euro [equivalent to ocior quam eurus], swifter than the 

east wind. — Virg. Mn. VIII. 223. 
The adverbs plus, amplius, more; minus, less, with several 
comparatives of measure or distance, are often used without 
quam, leaving the grammatical structure of the sentence un- 
changed, 
plus septingenti capti, more than seven hundred were taken. — 

Liv. XLI. 12. 
plus tertia parte imperfecta, more than a third being slain. — 

Cses. B.G. III. 6. 
spatium non amplius pedum sexcentorum, a space not 

broader than 600 feet. — Id. 38. 
The ablative also shows the degree of difference : as, 
quo minus cxipiditatis, eo plus auctoritatis, the less greed, the 

more weight. — Liv. XXIV. 28. 

VI. After words implying separation, and plenty or 
want : as, 

Forum Appi, differtum nautis, Forum Appii> crowded with 

sailors. — Hor. Sat. I. 5, 3. 
Ephorus calcaribus eget, Ephorus needs spurs. — Quint. X. 1. 
curis hominum gaudia misces, thou minglest joys with the cares 

of men. — Cat. 64. 
magno me metu liberabis, you will free me from great fear. 

— Cic. Cat. I. 5. 
Prepositions express the place more definitely : as, 
exire ex urbe, to go out from the city. — Cic. Cat. I. 5. 

Note. — For the genitive of plenty or want, see § 50, in. 2. 

VII. After opus and usus, need: as, 

nunc viribus usus, now there is need of strength. — Virg. iEn. 
VIII. 441. 
So, often, with the neuter of the perfect participle : as, 
cauto opust, we need caution. — Plaut. Capt. II. 1, 28. 

Opus (rarely usus) may also stand in apposition with the 
thing needed : as, 

illud quod maxime opus est, that which is most needed, — Ter. 
Ad. IV. 7, 22 (740). 



72 * ABLATIVE. §54 

VIII. Often, without a preposition, after perfect partici- 
ples denoting origin : as, 

Cerere nati, the children of Geres. — Cic. N.D. II. 24. 

With distant ancestors prepositions must be used : as, 
ab his majoribus orti, born of these ancestors. — Hor. Sat. I. 
5, 55. 

IX. To denote price : as, 

signa sestertium sex milibus quingentis vendita, the statues 
were sold for six thousand jive hundred sesterces. — Cic. 
Verr. IV. 6. 

stabunt tibi tua foedera magno, your treaty will cost you 
dear. — Ov. Met. VII. 486. 
To express indefinite price or value, the genitive is used : — 

1. Of neuter adjectives, with verbs of valuing: as, 

magni interest esse kalendis Januariis in republica duo 
consules, it is of great importance that on the first day of 
January there should be two consuls in the commonwealth. 
— Cic. Mur. 37. 

With other verbs, the ablative must be used, except these genitives : 
tanti, so much ; quanti, how much ; pluris, more ; minoris, less. 

2. Of certain nouns : as, 

falso an vero laudent non flocci faciunt, whether they praise 
truly or falsely, they care not a straw. — Plaut. Trin. 210. 

The genitives so used are nihili, nothing, assis, farthing, 
flocci, lock of wool, and a few others. 

X. Ablative Absolute. — Two ablatives, generally a 
noun and participle, often stand in apposition with each other, 
having no grammatical dependence on the sentence in which 
they occur. This is called the Ablative Absolute : as, 

Fharsalico proelio facto, a Caesare discessit, after the battle 

of Phars alia had been fought, he departed from Caesar. — 

Cic. pro Deiot. 5. 
dis immortalibus ducibus, under the guidance of the immortal 

gods. — Id. Cat. II. 9. 
ad viginti matronis accitis, having summoned about twenty 

ladies.— Ia\. VIII. 18. 



§55 TIME AND PLACE. 73 

Sometimes the participle or an adjective is in apposition with a 
phrase or clause : as, 

iiicerto quid peterent, since it was uncertain what they sought. 
Liv. XXVIII. 36. 

Note. — For the ablative, to denote the agent after passive 
verbs, see § 56, iv. — For prepositions governing the ablative, 
see § 42, n. — For the ablative of Time and Place, see § 55. 

55. Time and Place. 

I. Time when takes the ablative ; time how long, the ac- 
cusative : as, % 
adventu in Galliam Caesaris, at the arrival of Ccesar in Gaul. 

— Caes. B.G. V. o±. 
dies contmuos trlginta, for thirty days together. — Id. 13. « 
paucis post diebus, a few days after. — Cass. B.C. III. 82. 
Post is here an adverb ; it may also be post paucos dies. The 
same usage exists with ante, before. 

1. The use of a preposition gives more precision : as, 

in diebus proxlmis decern, within the next ten days. — Sail. 

Jug. 28. 
liidi per decern dies, games through ten days. — Cic. Cat. III. 8. 

2. Rarely the ablative expresses duration of time : as, 
quattuordecim annis exsiliuna tbleravit, he endured exile four- 
teen years. — Tac. Ann. I. 53. 

' II. Extent of space takes the accusative : as, 

fossas quindecim pedes latas, trenches fifteen feet broad. — 
Caes. B.G. VII. 72. 

Measure is often expressed by the genitive : as, 
vallo pedum xii, in circuitu xv milium sese continebant, 

they kept close in an entrenchment of twelve feet [height] , 
and of fifteen miles' 1 circuit. — Caes. B.G. II. 30. 

Distance takes the accusative or ablative : as, 
Zarna quinque dierum iter a Carthagme abest, Zama is a 
five days' 1 journey distant from Carthage. — Liv. XXX. 29. 
trlginta milibus passuum infra eum locum, thirty miles below 
that place. — Caes. B.G. VI. 35. 
4 



74 TIME AND PLACE. §55 

III. To express relations of place, prepositions are neces- 
sary, except with the names of towns and small islands ; also 
domus, home, rus, the country, and a few other nouns in 
special relations. With these nouns — 

1. The name of the place from which is in the ablative : as, 
Brundiisio profectus es, you set out from Brundusium. — Cic. 

Att. I. 15, 2. 

2. The name of the place to wliich is in the accusative : as, 
cum e Cilicia decedens Rhodum venissem, when, on my way 

from Cilicia, Iliad reached Rhodes. — Cic. Brut. 1. 
rus eras cum fllio Ibo, to-morrow I will go into the country with 
my son. — Ter. Ad. V. 3, 54. 
Prepositions must be used to denote neighborhood : as, 
ad Tarentum, to (not into) Tarentum. — Cic. de Senect. 4. 

3. The name of the place ivhere was originally put in a special 
case called the Locative. This case ended in I, and is generally 
the same in form with the Dative : as, 

Romae, at Rome ; Karthagim, at Carthage ; Athenis, at Athens ; 
Curibus, at Cures. 

In the second declension the old form in l is retained : as, 
Corinthi, at Corinth ; Lanuvi, at Lanuvium. 

In the third declension this case sometimes ends in e, like the 
ablative, especially when the metre requires it in poetry : as, 
Tibiire vel Gabiis, at Tibur or Gabii. — Hor. Ep. II. 2, 3. 

So domi, at home ; belli, militiae, in military service ; humi, 

on the ground; ruri, in the country (rure is from the country). 

hiemare Dyrrachii, Apolloniae, omnibusque oppidis mariti- 

mis, to winter in Dyrrachium, Apollonia, and all the seaboard 

toimis. — Cses. B.C. III. 5. 

erat edictum Pompei nomine Amphipoii propositum, an order 

had been pid up in Pompey's name at Amphipolis. — Id. 102. 

Veiis de coelo lapidaverat, it had rained stones at Veii. — Liv. 

XXVII. 37. 
te domi manebo, I ivill wait for you at home. — Hor. Ep. I. 5, 3. 

4. A possessive may stand with domus : as, 

nos domum tuam voces, call tis to thy home. — Tac. Agr. 46. 



§56 PREPOSITIONS. 75 

When it is modified in any other way, a preposition is gene- 
rally used : as, 

in M. Laecae domum, into the house of Marcus Lceca. — Cic. 
Cat. I. 4. 

5. The preposition is omitted before the ablative of a few other 
nouns : as, 

terra marique, by land and sea. — Tib. I. 3, 56. 
tota Sicilia, through all Sicily. — Cic. Yerr. IY. 23. 

So, very commonly, in poetry : as, 

litore curvo, on the curving shore. — Yirg. 2En. III. 16. 

IY. The way by which is put in the ablative : as, 

Aurelia via profectus est, he set out by the Aurelian way. — Cic. 
Cat. II. 4. 

56. Prepositions. 

I. Twenty-six prepositions govern the accusative ; eleven 
the ablative. (See § 40.) 

1 . In and sub take the accusative when they denote motion ; 
the ablative when they denote rest : as, 

Aristides in contionem venit, Aristides came into the assem- 
bly.-— Cic. deOff. III. 11. 

Themistocles dixit in contione, Themistocles said in the as- 
sembly. — Id. 

sub monte consedit, he encamped at the foot of a mountain. — 
Cses. B.G. I. 48. 

sub vesperum Caesar portas claudi jussit, towards evening 
Ccesar ordered the gates to be shut. — Id. II. 33. 

But after verbs of placing, in usually takes the ablative : as, 
exercitum in hibernis collocavit, lie established the army in 
winter-quarters. — Cses. B.C. III. 29. 

2. Super governs the ablative when it means concerning ; other- 
wise the accusative : as, 

hac super re, concerning this matter. — Cic. Att. XYI. 16. 
summa super culmina tecti, over the roof of the house. — Yirg. 
^En. II. 694. 



76 PREPOSITIONS. §56 

3. Subter governs the accusative ; but sometimes the ablative 
in poetry : as, 

subter fastigia tecti, below the roof of the house. — Virg. 2En. 

VIII, 3G6. 
subter litore, below the shore. — Catull. 65, 7. 

4. In giving the day of the month, the preposition ante, before, 
is usually omitted : as, 

xv. kalendas Augustas, the fifteenth day before the kalends 

of August (July 18). — Tac. Hist. II. 91. 
Often ante diem (a. d.), with an ordinal, is used like a preposi- 
tion governing an accusative : as, 
is dies erat a. d. v. kal. Apr., this day was the fifth day before 

the kalends of April (March 28). — Cses. B.G-. I. 6. 
This phrase may even be governed by a preposition : as, 
in a. d. v. kalendas Novembres, to the fifth day before the ka- 
lends of November (October 28). — Cic. Cat. I. 3. 

5. Tenus (which follows its noun) sometimes governs the geni- 
tive : as, 

Corcyrae tenus, as far as Corcyra. — Liv. XXVI. 24. 

But regularly it takes the ablative : as, 

capiilo teniis, up to the hilt. — Virg. iEn. V. 553. 

II. Certain adverbs are sometimes construed like prepo- 
sitions : — 

1. Pridie, postridie, propius, proxime, versus, and usque, 
and (less frequently) the adjectives propior and proximus, may 
be followed by the accusative : as, 

pridie Nonas Junias, the day before the Nones of June (June 4). 
— Cic. Fam. III. 4. 1. 

2 The adverb palam may govern the ablative : as, 

palam duobus exercitibus, in the presence oftivo armies. — Liv. 
XXV. 18. 

3. Clam may take either accusative or ablative : as, 
clam matrem suam, without her mother's knowledge. — Plaut. 

M.G: 112 (II. 1, 33). 
clam vobis, without your knoicledge. — Caes. B.G. II. 32. 



§57 SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 77 

III. Some prepositions which imply comparison, as ante, 
before ; post, after, — like the adverb prills, before, — are 
followed, like comparatives, by quam ; several words, or even 
clauses, sometimes coming between : as, 

neque ante dlmisit eum quam fidem dedit, nor did lie let him 
go until lie gave a pledge. — Liv. XXXIX. 10. 

IV. The ablative, with a or ab, is regularly used after 
passive verbs, to denote the agent, if a person, or if spoken 
of as a person : as, 

Turpilius, jussus a Metello causam dicere, Turpilius, being 
ordered by the consul to plead his cause. — Sail. Jug. 69. 
This use of the ablative of the agent must be carefully distin- 
guished from the ablative of instrument : as, 

occisus gladio, slain by a sword ; but occisus ab hoste, slain 

by an enemy. 

Note. — For the so-called dative of the agent with the gerund- 
ive, see §§51, vi. 73, i. 

III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 

57. Sequence of Tenses. (See § 27.) 

The Tenses of Finite Moods are distributed into 
two classes : — 

1. Primary, including the Present, both Futures, and 
Perfect (definite). 

2. Secondary, including the Imperfect, Perfect (histori- 
cal), and Pluperfect. 

In compound sentences, a Primary tense in the 
leading clause is followed by a Primary tense in the 
dependent clause ; and a Secondary tense is followed 
by a Secondary : as, 

venit ut nos videat, he comes to see us. 
venit ut nos videat, he is come to see us. 
venit ut nos videret, he came to see us. 
veni ut nos videas, come to see us. 



78 SEQUENCE OF TENSES. §57 

I. The Perfect Subjunctive is regularly a primary tense, 
and is used to express any past action depending upon a verb 
in a primary tense : as, 

ex epistolis intellegi licet, quam frequens fuerit Flatonis 
auditor, it may be judged from his epistles how constant a 
listener to Plato he was, — Cic. Orat. 4. 
But occasionally it is used in an aoristic sense : as, 
eo discordiae ventum, ut ad Vitellium perfugerit, the dis- 
cussion reached such a height that he fled to Vitellius. — 
Tac. Hist. I. 60. 
In this way a perfect subjunctive or infinitive, depending upon 
a primary tense, may itself be followed by secondary tenses : as, 
sic mihi perspicere videor, ita natos esse nos ut inter 
omnes esset societas quaedam, I think that I see that 
ice ivere so born that there exists among all a certain alli- 
ance. — Cic. de Amic. 5. 

The perfect subjunctive is also used for a future perfect : as, 
ostendit si sublata sit venditio bonorum, ilium pecuniam 
grandem amissurum, he shows that if the sale of the 
property shall be stopped, he will lose much money [si 
sublata erit, amittet]. — Cic. Rose. Am. 38. 

II. The Present is often used in narrative for the Histori- 
cal Perfect, and may be followed by Secondary Tenses : as, 
Senatus decernit iiti in liberis custodiis haberentur, the 

Senate decrees that they should be held in free custody. — 
Sail. Cat. 47. 

III. The Tenses denoting completed action are used much 
more accurately in Latin than in English : as, 

si eris meritus, fiet, if you deserve [shall have deserved], it 

shall be done. — Plaut. Trim IV. 3, 61. 
vivo et regno simul ista reliqui quae vos ad caelum fertis, 

1 live and reign, as soon as I leave [have left] those scenes 

which you extol to heaven. — Hor. Ep. I. 10. 8. 
After postquam, posteaquam, and iibi, the Perfect is used 
where we should expect the Pluperfect : as, 
postquam id animum advertit, when he had perceived this. — 

Ca3s. B.G. I. 24. 



§57 SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 79 

Dum, while (not as long as), is usually followed by the Present 
Indicative, even when referring to past time : as, 
dura haec in colioquio geruntur, Caesari nuntiatum est, 

while these things were going on in the conference, it was an- 

nounced to Caesar. — Caes. B.G. I. 46. 
The Perfect Indefinite is often found (followed by secondary 
tenses), where the regular Perfect would be used in English : as, 
mini ut urbi satis esset praesidii consultum atque provisum 

est. / have considered and provided that the city should have 

a sufficient guard. — Cic. Cat. II. 12, 

IV. in dependent clauses, the tenses of the infinitive have 
no time of their own, but are present, past, or future, rela- 
tively to the time of the verb upon which they depend: as, 
nostros non esse inferiores intellexit, he ascertained that our 

men were not inferior. — Caes. B.G. II. 8. 
quam Juno fertur terris magis omnibus coluisse, which Juno 
is said to have cherished above all lands. — Virg. iEn. I. 15. 
sperant se maximum fructum esse capturos, they hope to re- 
ceive the greatest advantages. — Cic. de Amic. 21. 
The present infinitive, after a verb in the past, must often be 
rendered by the perfect infinitive in English ; this is most frequent 
with potui, could; debui, oportuit, ought: as, 
scire potuit, he might have known. — Cic. pro Mil. 17. 
qui videbatur omnino mori non debuisse, who seemed one that 
ought not to have died at alL — Cic. pro Arch. 8. 
Memini, and some other verbs, in an account of what the 
speaker has personally witnessed, take the present infinitive : as, 
memini Catonem mecum disserere, I remember Gators discours- 
ing with me. — Cic. de Amic. 3, 

Y. The statement of a general truth, following a secon- 
dary tense, observes the rule of connection of tenses : as, 
judicabant esse aliquid natura pulchrum atque praecla- 
rum quod sua sponte peteretur, they were of opinion 
that there is something beautiful and glorious by nature, 
which is sought for its own sake. — Cic. de Senect. 13. 



80 MOODS. §58 

58. Moods. 

The Moods of a Latin verb are the Indicative, Sub- 
junctive, Imperative, and Infinitive c 

L The Indicative is regularly employed for the leading 
verb of a sentence : it is used in direct assertions or ques- 
tions, and in historical narrative. 

II. The Subjunctive is used chiefly for dependent con- 
structions, — especially to denote any thing as contingent, 
conceived of, or desired, — its tense being determined by that 
of the verb on which it depends» (See § 57o) In particular 
it is found, — 

1 In many Conditional sentences, the condition being often 
implied, §§ 59, 60, 61, 62. 

2. In certain relations of Cause or Motive, § 63. 

3. In clauses which express Purpose or Result, §§ 64, 65. 

4. In intermediate and subordinate clauses, chiefly relative or 
interrogative, §§66, 67. 

5. In wishes and commands (in the present and perfect), to 
take the place of the Imperative, § 68. 

III. The Imperative is used in commands ; also, in early 
writers and poets, in prohibitions : as, 

consiilite vobis, prospieite patriae, conservate vos, take 

measures for your safety, provide for the country, preserve 

yourselves. — Cic. Cat, IY. 2, 
nimium ne crede colori, do not trust complexion overmuch, — 

Virg. Buc. IL 17. 
Prohibitions are regularly expressed by the second person sin- 
gular of the perfect subjunctive with ne; noli with the infinitive; 
or by cave with the subjunctive : as, 
ne territus fueris, be not terrified. — Tac. Hist, I. 16. 
noli piitare, do not think. — Cic, Brut. 33. 
cave faxis, do not do it, — Ter. Heaut. 187 (I, 2. 13). 

The future imperative is used in statutes, edicts, and wills : as, 
caput obnubito, arbori infelici suspendito, veil his head, 

hang him to the accursed tree. — Cic. pro Rab. 4. 
Note. — For the subjunctive used imperatively, see § 68. 



§59 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 81 

IV. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, 
is construed either as the subject or as the object of the lead- 
ing verb. In this use, it is found especially in the construc- 
tion called oratio obliqua. (See § 67.) 

In other cases, hardly any tense is used except the present^ 
expressing no distinct relation of time : as, 
mitto quaerere, I refrain from asking. — Cic. Rose. Am. 19. 

The poets and later writers use the infinitive after adjectives, 
or to express a purpose : as, 

durus componere versus, harsh in composing verses. — Hor. 

Sat. I. 4, 8. 
furit te reperire, he rages to find thee. — Id. Carm. I. 15, 27. 
fruges consumere nati, born to consume the fruits of the earth. 

— Id. Ep. II. 2,27. 

59. Conditional Sentences. 

I. When any thing is stated, the truth of which is made 
to depend on the truth of some other statement, contained in 
a subordinate clause, the sentence is called a Conditional 
Sentence. 

The Principal clause — that containing the conclusion — 
is called the apodosis ; the Subordinate clause — that stating 
the condition — is called the protasis : as, 

si qui exire volunt, connivere possum, if any wish to depart 
(protasis), I am ready to connive (apodosis). — Cic. Cat. 
II. 12. 

II. The statement of the condition in Latin (protasis) is 
regularly introduced by si, if; sin, but if; nisi, unless ; but 
a clause introduced by an indefinite relative {whoever), or a 
relative conjunction (when, since, and the like), may be con- 
sidered as equivalent to a conditional clause : as, 

quod in alia causa non concederem in hac concedam, what 
I would not grant in another case [if the case were differ- 
ent] I will grant in this. — Cic. Rose, Am. 27. 

4* 



82 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. §59 

The statement of the consequence or result depends in 
form on the grammatical structure of the sentence, which 
may require a participle, infinitive, or phrase : as, 
quod si praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sola decima 
legione lturum, de qua non dubitaret, but if no one 
else would follow, still he would go with the tenth legion 
alone, of ivhich he had no doubt. — Caes. B.G. I. 40. 
si quos adversum proelium et fuga Gallorum commoveret, 
hos si quaererent reperire posse, if any were troubled 
by this check, and by the flight of the Gauls, they might find 
if they would ask. — Id. 

III. Any tense of the Indicative may be used to express 
both condition and result in its appropriate time : as, 

si ergo apud inferos miseri non sunt, ne sunt quidem apud 
inferos ulli, if, therefore, the wretched are not in the in- 
fernal regions, there is no one there at all. — Cic. Tusc. I. 6. 

sanabimur si volemus, we shall be healed if we wish. — Id. 
III. 6. 

quicquid jurarunt, ventus et unda rapit, whatever they have 
sworn [i.e., if they have sworn any thing], the winds and 
waves sweep away. — Prop. II. 28. 8. 

IV. The Subjunctive is used in both members of condi- 
tional sentences : — 

1. The Present, in reference to future time, to express a 
supposition less vividly or as less probable than when the 
future indicative is used : as, 

nee si muneribus certes, concedat Iollas, nor if you should 

vie in gifts, woidd Iollas yield. — Yirg. Buc. IP 57. 
haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat? 

If thy country should thus speak to thee, ought she not to 

prevail ? — Cic. Cat. I. 8. 
Often the future indicative stands in the apodosis ; as, 
si deficiant vires, audacia certe laus erit, if strength shoidd 

fail, boldness at least ivill have praise. — Prop. II. 10, 5. 

2. The Secondary tenses, when the supposition is known 
to be false ; the imperfect referring to present time, the plu- 
perfect to past : as, 



§59 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 83 

si meum consilium auctoritasque valuisset, tu hodie egeres, 
nos liberi essemus, respublica* non tot duces et ex- 
ercitus amisisset, if my judgment and authority had 
prevailed [as they did not], you would this day be poor 
[which you are not], we should be free, the republic would 
not have lost so many leaders and armies, — Cic. Phil. II. 15. 

The indicative (in apodosis) sometimes expresses what ought 
to have been done, or is intended, or already begun s as, 

si Romae Cn. Pompeius privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen 
is erat deligendus, if Cnceus Pompey were a private citi- 
zen at Rome at this time, nevertheless he ought to be selected* 
— Cic. Leg. Man. 17. 

in amplexus filiae ruebat, nisi lictores obstitissent, he was 
about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the lictors 
had prevented. — Tac. Ann. XVI. 32. 
When a subjunctive is required in the apodosis of a conditional 

clause, by the structure of the sentence of which it forms a part, the 

pluperfect may be represented by the participle in rus with the 

perfect subjunctive of esse: as, 

adeo parata seditio fuit, ut Othonem rapturi fuerint, nl 
incerta noctis timuissent, so far advanced was the con- 
spiracy, that they would have seized upon Otlio if they had 
not feared the uncertainties of the night [rapuissent ni 
timuissent following ut]. — Tac. Hist. I. 26» 

3. The Subjunctive is sometimes used to express a condi- 
tion of a general nature, referring indefinitely to any one of 
a series of acts ; in this case the indicative is used in the 
apodosis to state a repeated or customary action, or general 
truth: as, 

memoria minuitur nisi earn exerceas, the memory grows weak 

unless you exercise it. — Cic. Sen. 7. 
id iibi dixisset, hastam in fines eorum mittebat, when he 

[the herald] had said this, he would throw [used to throw] 

a spear into their territories. — Liv. I. 32. 

The subjunctive is rarely, if ever, used in this way, except in 
philosophical discourse (the present) , and historical narration (the 
pluperfect), as in the examples given above. 



84 IMPLIED CONDITIONS* §60. 

60. Implied Conditions. 
The subordinate member of a conditional sentence (that 
containing the condition), is frequently omitted. Under this 
head belong most of the subjunctives which appear to be 
independent verbs, and which would not always take this 
mood if the condition were fully stated. 

In this usage the perfect subjunctive is especially common ; and 
the second person singular, to denote some indefinite person. 

The Subjunctive in implied conditions is employed as in 
the following examples : — 

1. In its so-called Potential use, referring to an indefinite 
subject : as, 

turn in lecto quoque videres susurros, then on each couch you 
might see whisperings. — Hor. Sat. II. 8, 77. 
Here a complete sentence would require the pluperfect : thus, 
vidisses si adfuisses, you would have seen if you had been there. 

2. In cautious, modest, or hypothetical statement : as, 
nee ullam morum partem magis laudaveris, nor ivould one com- 
mend more highly any one of their customs. — Tac. Germ. 17. 

velim sic tibi persuadeas, I wish you would persuade yourself 

of this. — Cic. Fam. XV. 4. 
vellem adesset M. Antonius, I wish Mark Antony were pres- 
ent— -Id. Phil. I. 7. 
Velim refers to future time, vellem to present or past time, 
in a wish for something known to be impossible. 

3. In questions asked with a certain hesitation or doubt : as, 
quid ego carmine pltira commemorem ? ivhy should I relate 

more in versed — Catull. 64, 116. 

4. In conceding a point, or supposing a case ; — here the 
inference or conclusion is the clause omitted : as, 

fuerit ille Brutus, qui dominatu regio rempublicam libera- 
vit, suppose there was a Brutus who freed the republic from 
the tyranny of the kings. — Cic. Phil. I. 6. 

si jam sint id adepti, suppose they have already obtained it. — Id. 
Cat. IT. 9. 



§61 CONDITIONAL PARTICLES. 85 

61. Conditional Particles. 
Certain Particles implying a condition are followed 
by the Subjunctive. These are — 

1. Particles of comparison, — tamquam, quasi, veluti, 
&c. : as, 

tamquam modo ex deorum concilio descendisset, as if he 
had just come down from the council of the gods. — Cic. 
N.D. I. 8. 

quasi plures fortunati sint quam infelices, as if more were 
fortunate than unfortunate. — Cic. Tusc. I. 36. 

2. The concessive particles, quamvis, however much ; licet 
and lit, granting that ; cum, although ; and, in later writers, 
quamquam, although: as, 

it a que eum qui audiunt, quamvis ipsi infantes sint, tamen 
illo modo confidunt se posse dicere, therefore those 
who hear him, however incapable of speaking they may 
themselves be, nevertheless feel confident that they can speak 
in that manner. — Cic. Orat. 23. 

ut nemmem alium nisi T. Patmam rogasset, scire pbtuit, 
even if he had asked no one but Titus Patina, he might have 
known. — Cic. Mil. 17. 

quamquam per dictatorem dliectus habitus esset, although 
the levy had been held under the aidhority of the dictator. — 
Liv. II. 32. 

cum mercede doceret, although he taught for pay. — Cic. de 
Orat. I. 28. 

Quamquam and etsi introduce the statement of a fact, and 
therefore take the indicative ; quamvis, licet, and ut, of a sup- 
posed case, and take the subjunctive ; cum, signifying although, 
while used as equivalent to quamquam, takes the subjunctive by 
special use. 

3. Dum, dummodo, and modo, provided: as, 

multa admiranda sunt, eligere modo curae sit, many points 
are deserving of admiration, provided they are selected with 
care. — Quint. X. 1, 131. 

" Qderint dum metuant," let them hate if only they fear. — Cic. 
Phil. I. 14. 



86 RELATIONS OF TIME. §62 

62. Relations of Time. 

I. Cum (quum), meaning when, takes the indicative ; since, 
or although, the subjunctive : as, 

cum se inter equitum turmas insinuaverunt, when they have 

worked their way among the troops of horse. — Cses. B.G. 

IV. 33. 
' cum solitudo et vita sine amicis insidiarum et metus plena 

sit, since solitude and a life without friends is full of 

treachery and fear. — Cic. de Fin. I. 20. 
But cum, when, is followed by the secondary tenses of the sub- 
junctive in narration : as, 
cum essem in Ceramico, when I was in the Cer amicus. — Cic. 

Att. I. 10. 

II. Dum, donee, quoad, until; and antequam, prius- 
quam, before, may take the subjunctive, — 

1. In reference to future time. 

2. To express something desired or anticipated ; or, 

3. (The secondary tenses) in historical narration : as, 

priusquam ad portum venias, before you come to the harbor. — 
Ter. Ad. IV. 2, 44. 

dum novi magistrates sortirentur provincias, M. Baebius 
transire in Epirum est jussus, until the neiv magistrates 
should draio lots for their provinces, Marcus Bcebius was 
ordered to cross into Epirus. — Liv. XXXV. 24. 

festinandum ceteris videbatur, antequam cresceret invalida 
adhuc conjuratio, the others were of opinion that it was 
best to hasten, before the yet weak conspiracy should gather 
strength.— Tac. Hist. I. 33. 

trepidationis aliquantum elephanti edebant, donee quietem 
ipse timor fecisset, the elephants caused some confusion, 
until their very fear had caused quiet. — Liv. XXI. 28. 
But dum, ivhile ; ubi, postquam, posteaquam, when, regu- 
larly take the indicative : as, 

dum haec geruntur (or gerebantur), while this was going on. — 
Cses. B.G. I. 46. 

quod ubi Caesar resciit, when Ccesar had got word of this. — 
Id. 28. 



§63 CAUSE OR REASON. 87 

63. Cause or Reason. 

I. The conjunctions quod (sometimes quia), because, and 
quoniam and quando, since, are followed by the subjunctive 
when the reason is stated not as a fact, but as a motive in the 
mind of another, and even of the speaker or writer himself: as, 

Drusus rettiilit ad Senatum de illo quod in eum ordinem 
consul tarn graviter in contione esset invectus, Drusus 
laid his [Philippus's] case before the Senate, on the ground 
that he, although consul, had inveighed so bitterly against 
that body in the public assembly. — Cic. de Orat. III. 1. 

acoedit ilia quoque causa, quod a caeteris forsitan ita pe- 
titum sit ut dicerent, ut utrumvis salvo officio facere 
se posse arbitrarentur, there is this reason besides [in my 
own mind], that others have perhaps been invited to speak, in 
such a way that they supposed they might act either way with 
a clear conscience. —Id. Rose. Am, 1. 

Non quo (negatively non quin) is often used for non quod : as, 
non quo furtum facere studuerit, not that he desired to commit 
a theft, — Ter. Eun. 28c 

II. Relatives implying a cause or reason take the subjunc- 
tive, being frequently strengthened by ut, utpote, quippe, or 
praesertim : as, 

fateor me errasse, qui hoc maluerim, I confess that I erred in 

choosing this. — Cic. Rose. Am. 49. 
orationes centum quinquaginta, quas quidem adhuc invene- 

rim et legerim, the hundred and fifty orations, such at least 

as I have met with and read. — Id. Brut, 
quippe qui videam, since I see. — Liv. Praef. 

III. Cum causal, signifying since, takes the subjunctive : as, 
cum omnis popiili Romani reiigio in sacra et in auspicia 

divisa sit, since the whole religion of the Roman people is 
divided into ceremonies and auspices. — Cic. N.D» III. 2. 
But in the sense of quod, on the ground that, it takes the in- 
dicative : as, 

gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apiid Dolabellam, / congratu- 
late you on your influence with Dolabella. — Cic. Fam. IX. 14. 



88 PURPOSE. § 64 

64. Purpose. 

I. Final Clauses, or those expressing a Purpose, take the 
subjunctive after relatives (qui=ut is), or the conjunction ut 
(uti), in order that, and (negatively) ne, ut ne, lest: as, 
monet ut ignes in castris fieri prohibeat, ne qua ejus ad- 

ventus procul signif icatio fiat, he advises him to pro- 
hibit fires being made in camp, in order that no signs of his 
arrival may be shown at a distance. — Cses. B.G. VI. 29. 
ut ne sit impune, that it be not with impunity. — Cic. Mil. 12. 

II. Quo is used for ut eo, especially with comparatives : as, 
castris ad Babyloniam positis quo majore animo capesse- 

rent bellum, the camp being pitched near Babylon, in order 
that they might enter into the ivar with greater spirit. — 
Curt. III. 2, 2. 
Note. — Compare quominus, (= ut eo minus,) after verbs 
of hindering. — § 65, in. 

III. After expressions denoting fear, ut (ne non) is to be 
translated that not ; ne, that or lest : as, 

omnes labores te excipere video ; timeo ut sustineas, / see 

you taking upon yourself all labors ; I fear you will not 

endure them. — Cic. Fam. XIY. 2. 
pavor ceperat milites, ne mortiferum esset vulnus,/ear had 

seized the soldiers that the wound [of Scipio] was mortal. — 

Liv. XX1Y. 42. 

IY. Ut or ne is often omitted, especially after verbs of 

wishing, advising, &c. ; as, 

Syro ignoscas volo, / ivish that you woidd pardon Syrus. — Ter. 

Heaut. Y. 5, 22. 
cave ignoscas, do not pardon. — Cic. Lig. 5. 

Note. — For ut, signifying although, see § 61, 2. In the sense 
of ivhen or how it takes the indicative : as, ut valet ? how is she? 
(Plaut.) ; ut vidi! how I gazed! — Yirg. Buc. YIII. 41. 

Y. The purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in va- 
rious ways ; but never (except rarely in poetry) by the simple 
infinitive, as in English. The sentence, he sent men to 
plough the field, may be rendered, — 



§65 CONSEQUENCE OR RESULT. 89 

1. By the subjunctive with ut: as, 
homines niisit ut agrum ararent. 

2. By the subjunctive with qui : as, 
homines misit qui agrum ararent. 

3. By the Gerundive with ad : as, 
homines misit ad agrum arandum. 

4. By the Gerundive with causa or gratia : as, 
homines misit agri arandi causa. 

5. By the Future Participle : as, 
homines misit agrum araturos. 

Purpose is also expressed by the Former Supine in many 
verbs : as, spectatum ludos ivit, he went to see the games. (§ 74.) 

65. Consequence or Result. 

I. Clauses denoting a Result take the subjunctive after 
relatives and the conjunction ut (negative, ut noil) : as, 
Augusto prompta ac profluens quaeque deceret principem 

eloquentia fuit, Augustus p ossessed a ready and fluent 
power of speaking, such as became a prince. — Tac. Ann. 
XIII. 3. 
Quae fuit eorum tanta iniquitas ut placari populo Romano 
non possent nisi viri tales occidissent? Hoio great 
ivas their injustice [that of the gods] that they coidd not be 
reconciled to the Roman people unless men of such eminence 
should falU — Cic. N.D. III. 6. 

II. ftuin, that not, is used after negative expressions, 
denoting hinderance, resistance, doubt, and suspension of 
effort : as, 

est deterrita numquam quin fleret, she was never prevented 

from weeping. — Tib. I. 3, 13. 
non dubito quin hanc salutem anteponas illi victoriae, / do 

not doubt that you value this security more highly than that 

victory. — Cic. Lig. 10. 
Many of these expressions may also be followed by the infini- 
tive, or by ne with the subjunctive : as, 
prohibentur adire ad filios [also ne adeant], they are forbids 

den to visit their own sons. — Cic. Verr. V. 45. 



90 INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. § 66 

III. Guomixms, that not, may be used after verbs of hinder- 
ing : as ? 

nee aetas impedit, quominus agri colendi studia teneamus, 
nor does the time of life prevent us from retaining the taste 
for tilling the ground. — Cic. de Senect. 17. 

IV. The subjunctive stands in relative clauses — 

1. After dignus, worthy ; indignus, unworthy ; aptus, 
idoneus, fit ; unus and solus, only : as, 

idonea mihi Laeli persona visa est, quae de amicitia dis- 
sereret, the person of Laelius seemed to me a suitable one 
to discourse of friendship. — Cic. de Amic. I. 

nil admirari prope res est una solaque, quae possit facere 
et servare beatum, to be surprised at nothing is almost 
the sole and only thing which can make and keep one hap- 
py. — Hor. Ep. I. 6, 1. 

2. After general expressions denoting existence and non- 
existence : as, 

erant qui Helvidium miserarentur, there were some who pitied 

Helvidius. — Tac. Ann. XVI. 29. 
nihil est illorum, quin [= quod non] ego illi dixerim, there is 

none of these things which I have not said to him. — Plaut. 

Bacc. III. 9, 89. 
unde agger comportari posset, nihil erat reliquum, there ivere 

no materials left from which a mound could be got together. 

— Cses. B.C. II. 15. 

3. After quam, than : as, 
majores arbores caedebant, quam quas ferre miles posset, 

they cut larger trees than a soldier could carry. — Liv. 
XXXIII. 5. 

66. Intermediate Clauses. 

I. A Relative, or other subordinate clause, takes the 
Subjunctive, when it is regarded as an integral part of 
the thought or expression of some other person than the 
speaker or writer. 



§67 ORATIO OBLIQUA. 91 

Many such clauses may be so regarded or not, as the 
writer chooses : as, 

primam posuit earn de qua modo dixi, quae orta esset 
ex praesensione rerum futurarum, he first mentioned 
that of which I have just spoken [direct statement] which 
(according to him) had its origin in the fore-feeling of the 
Future. — Cic. X.D. II. 5. (See § 63, i.) 

II. A clause depending on a verb in the subjunctive will 
also be in the subjunctive, if regarded as an integral part of 
the sentence on which it depends : as, 

qui a scribendi consuetudme ad dicendum venit, hanc ad- 
fert facultatem, ut etiam subito si dicat, tamen ilia 
quae dicantur similia scriptorum esse videantur, he 

who p asses from the practice of ivriting to speaking, brings 
with him this power, that even if he speak without prepara- 
tion, yet what he says seems like written ivords. — Cic. de 
Orat. I. 33. [etiam subito si dicit, tamen ilia quae 
dicuntur similia scriptorum esse videntur.J 

III. Intermediate Clauses in the oratio obliqua take the 
Subjunctive. (See the following section.) 

67. Oratio Obliqua. 

If a quotation is made in the words of the original 
speaker, it is called Oratio Recta (direct discourse). 
But if it is made to depend on some verb of speaking 
or thinking, varying the form of the words from that 
originally used, it is called Oratio Obliqua (indirect 
discourse) . 

In English, an indirect quotation is introduced by the conjunc- 
tion that. 

I. The Latin form for quotations is as follows : — 
1. In Indirect Questions the subjunctive is used : as, 
quid sit futurum eras fuge quaerere, avoid inquiring what will 
be to-morrow, [direct question, quid est futurum eras?] 
Hor. Carm. I. 9, 13. 



92 ORATIO OBLIQUA. §67 

nec quibus rationibus siiperare possent, sed quemadmbdum 

uti victoria deberent cogitabant, nor did they (the army 

of Pompey) reflect by what means they could win the victory, 

but in what manner they should use it, — Caes. B.C. III. 83. 

Thus quid quaeris ? (direct question) means, what do you ask? 

scio quid quaeras (indirect question) means, / know what you 

ask ; scio quod quaeris (direct assertion) means, I know the 

thing you ask. 

Note. — Nescio quis, I know not who, is sometimes used 
(generally in the way of disparagement), to introduce a direct 
assertion ; being nearly equivalent to aliquis or quidam, some 
one : as, 

quin etiam fuit audiendus Licinius nescio qui, then too you 
had to listen to one Licinius. — Cic. Mil. 24. 
Nescio an, I know not whether, is often used as equivalent to 
'perhaps, and regularly takes the subjunctive. 

2. A Declarative sentence, when quoted, takes the con- 
struction of the accusative with the infinitive, the subject 
being put in the accusative, and the verb in the appropriate 
tense of the infinitive : as, 

Crassus valet, Crassus is loell ; dicit Crassum valere, he says 

that Crassus is ivell. 
scripsit epistolam, he has written a letter ;' dicit se scripsisse 

epistolam, he says he has written a letter. 
non laetor, / am not glad; nego me laetari, I say I am not glad. 
mini videor satis et esse deos et quales essent ostendisse* 

/ think 1 have shown clearly enough, both that there are gods> 

and of ivhat nature they are. — Cic. N.D. II. 28. 
Esse here expresses an indirect statement ; essent, an indirect 
question. 

The principal clause of a Conditional Sentence (apodosis) when 
indicative in the Oratio Recta, follows in the Oratio Obliqua the 
general rule for Declarative sentences ; but when subjunctive, it 
is represented by the future participle with esse if present or im- 
perfect, or fuisse if pluperfect : as, ■ 
nisi jurasset scelus se facturum arbitrabatur [scelus faceret], 

he thought he woidd incur guilt unless he should take the 

oath. — Cic. Yerr. I. 47. 



§67 ORATIO OBLIQUA. 93 

jurant ita Ciceronem locuturum fuisse [locutus esset], they 
swear that Cicero xoould have spoken so. — Quint. X. 2, 17. 
Note. — The subjunctive is not used as a principal verb, except 
in the apodosis of a conditional sentence. 

The subject of the Infinitive is sometimes omitted, when it 

would be easily understood : as, 

rogavi pervenissentne Agrigentum ; dixit pervenisse [sc. 
ea], I asked whether they (the curtains) had reached Agri- 
gentum; he answered that they had. — Cic. Verr. IV. 12. 

II. Subordinate clauses in the oratio obliqua take the 
subjunctive, the tense being determined by that of the prin- 
cipal verb (see §57) : as, 

L. Lentiilus consul senatui reique publicae se non defutu- 
rum pollicetur, si audacter ac fortiter sententias di- 
cere velint, Lucius Lentidus the consul promises not to 
desert the Senate "and the republic, if they are ivilling to 
speak their minds boldly and bravely (non deero ... si 
voletis).— Cses. B.C. I. 1. 

adlatum erat, cum in Aetoliam venisset Antiochus, ex- 
templp classem eum in Sicilian! missurum, word had 
been brought, that when Antiochus should reach JEtolia, he 
would at once send his fleet to Sicily [cum venerit (fut. 
perf. indie.) mittet]. — Liv. XXXV. 23. 

Ariovistus respondit: si quid ipsi a Caesare opus esset, 

* sese ad eum venturum fuisse ; . . ; sibi autem mlrum 

videri, quid in sua Gallia, quam bello vicisset, aut 

Caesari aut omnino popiilo Romano negotii esset, 

Ariovistus answered, that, if he wanted any thing of Cmsar, 

Tie would have come to- him ; . . . but that he wondered what 

. concern either Ccesar or the Roman people at all had with 

his Gaul, which he had conquered in war [si quid opus 

esset . . . venissem ; . . . mirum videtur, quid in mea 

Gallia, quam bello vici, . . . Caesari . . . negotii sit]. — 

Cses. B.G. 1/34. 

1. An Imperative in the Oratio Recta becomes a subjunctive in 

the Oratio Obliqua : as, 

ne committeret, let him not bring it about [ne commiseris] . — 
Cses. B.G. I. 13. 



94 ORATIO OBLIQUA. §67 

2. A Question is put in the infinitive, unless in the second per- 
son, in which case it becomes subjunctive : as, 

si veteris contumeliae oblivisci vellet, num etiam recentium 
injuriarum memoriam [se] deponere posse? if he ivere 
willing to forget the ancient disgrace, could he also lay 
aside the memory of recent outrages ? [num possim ?] — 
Caes. B.G. I. 14. 

quid sibi vellent? ivhat did they wish? [quid vultis ?] — Id. 44. 

III. 1. A future infinitive is often expressed by fore 
(futurum esse) ut with the subjunctive; regularly so in 
passive or deponent verbs : as, 

rebantur enim fore ut exercitus imperatorem perse quere- 
tur, for they thought that the army would follow the com- 
mand.— Cic. N.D. III. 6. 

nisi nuntii de Caesaris victoria essent adlati, existimabant 
plerique futurum fuisse uti arhitteretur, unless news of 
Ccesafs victory had been brought, many thought he would 
have been lost. — Cses. B.C. III. 101. 

2. After verbs signifying hope, promise, and the like, the 
subject of the infinitive, whether a noun or a personal or 
reflective pronoun, must always be expressed : as, 

promisit se venturum, he promised to come. 
sperat se negotium confecturum, he hopes to finish the busi- 
ness. 

But where there is no future participle, fore ut with the sub- 
junctive must be used : as, 

sperat fore ut possit, he hopes to be able. 

pollicetur fore ut frumentum adferatur, he promises that corn 
shall be brought (more rarely, adlatum iri or fore) . 

IV. 1. The passive of verbs of saying, &c, may either be 
used impersonally, followed by the accusative with the infini- 
tive ; or personally, followed by the infinitive alone : as, 

primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse, they are related 
to have been the first to combine words by a certain art [also, 
traditur eos primos, etc.] — Cic. Orat. 13. 



§68 WISHES AND COMMANDS. 95 

2. The infinitive passive may be used impersonally after 
these verbs : as, 

in eo ipso in quo praedicationem nobilitatemque despici- 
unt, praedlcari de se ac nommari volunt, in that very 
work, in which they disparage renown and celebrity, they de- 
sire that they may be renowned and named. — Cic. Arch. 10. 

Y. After a comparison, in the Oratio Obliqua, the construc- 
tion of the accusative with the infinitive is usually con- 
tinued : as, 

nullam capitaliorem pestem quam voluptatem corporis ho- 
mmibus dicebat a natura datam [for quam voluptas] , 
he said that no more deadly evil had been given to men by 
nature than bodily pleasure. — Cic. de Senect. 12. 

68. . Wishes and Commands. 

I. The subjunctive is used in wishes ; — the primary tenses 
in reference to future time, implying that the thing desired is 
at least possible ; the secondary to express a hopeless wish, — 
the imperfect in present time, the pluperfect in past : as, 
serus in caelum redeas, mayst thou return late to the shies. — 

Hor. Carm. I. 2, 45. 
utinam me mortuum vidisses, would that you had seen me 

dead. — Cic. ad Q. Fr. I. 3, 1. 
The primary tenses of the subjunctive so used are often equiv- 
alent to an imperative (see § 58, in.) : as, 
ne semper udum Tibur et Aesiilae declive contempleris 

arvum, do not for ever gaze at watery Tibur and the sloping 

fields of Aesula. — Hor. Carm. III. 29, 6. (See § 58, in.) 

II. With verbs of wishing and permitting the infinitive is 
generally used : as, 

te tua frui virtute cupimus, we wish you to reap the benefit of 

your virtue. — 'Cic. Brut. 97. 
neu sinas Medos equitare inultos, nor permit the Medes to make 

incursions with impunity. — Hor. Carm. I. 2, 51. 
But the subjunctive may be used without ut : as, 
vellem mos esset, I ivish it were the custom. — Ter. Ad. IV. 1, 

16. (§64, iv.) 



96 RELATIVE AND SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. §§69,70 

III. Jubeo, command, takes the accusative with the infini- 
tive ; other verbs of commanding, the dative with lit and the 
subjunctive : as, 

omnem senatum ad se convenire jussit, he commanded the 

entire senate to come to him. — Cses. B.G. II. 5. 
suis imperavit ne quod omnino telum in hostes rejicerent, 

he ordered his soldiers to cast no weapon at all against the 
enemy. — Id. I. 46. 

69. Subjunctive in Eelative Clauses. 

The various relative clauses have been already treated of, 
under the special heads to which they belong. They may be 
classed under the following titles : — 

1. General relatives in protasis, §§ 59, 60. 

2. Temporal clauses (relative adverbs of time), § 62, iv. 

3. Relative implying a Cause, § 63, n. 

4. Relative of Purpose, § 64, i. 

5. Relative of Consequence or Result, § 65, 1. & iv. 

6. Relative in Intermediate Clauses, § 66. 

7. Relative clauses in oratio obliqua, § 67. 

Note. — In general, the relative with a definite antecedent 
takes the indicative in direct construction ; with an indefinite ante- 
cedent, the subjunctive : as, 

hi sunt qui ita putant, these are they that think so. 

sunt qui ita putent, there are some who think so. (§ 65, iv. 2.) 

70. Substantive Clauses. 

A Substantive Clause is a clause or phrase — usu- 
ally the indicative with quod, the subjunctive with ut, 
or the accusative with the infinitive — which is con- 
strued like a noun, as the subject or object of a leading 
verb. 

Under this head are included the accusative and infinitive in 
Oratio Obliqua (§ 67, i. 2) ; also clauses following verbs of wish- 
ing and command (§ 68). 



§70 SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 97 

I. Verbs implying motive or desire generally take ut (ne) 
with the subjunctive (see §§ 64, 65, 68) : as, 

concedo tibi ut ea praetereas, I allow you to pass over these 
points. — Cic. Rose. Am. 19. 

When verbs of this class are used for a mere expression of 
opinion, they take the accusative with the infinitive : as, 
concedo non esse miseros qui mortui sint, / grant that those 
who are dead are not miserable. — Cic. Tusc. I. 7. 

II. Impersonal verbs, and other expressions denoting hap- 
pening and existence, take a subjunctive introduced by ut 
(ut non), as subject (see § 65) : as, 

sequitur ut cuj usque generis nota quaeratur, it follows that 
the mark of each class should be sought. — Cic. Orat. 23. 

accidit ut esset plena luna, it chanced to be full moon. — Cses. 
B.G. IV. 29. 

accedit ut conturber, another point is that I am disturbed. — Cic. 
Deiot. 1. 

mos est hominum ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excel- 
lere, it is the custom of men to be unwilling to admit that 
the same person excels in several respects. — Id. Brut. 21. 

III. Verbs of satisfaction and wonder, and impersonal 
expressions denoting fitness, take the accusative with the 
infinitive : as, 

quae perfecta esse gaudeo, vehementerque laetor, / rejoice 
and greatly exult that these things have been accomplished. 
— Cic. Rose. Am. 47. 

accusatores multos esse in civitate utile est, it is advantage- 
ous that there be many accusers in a state. — Id. 20. 

IV. Quod with the indicative is used to indicate the ex- 
istence of a state of things, and at the same time express a 
judgment (compare § 63, i.) : as, 

gaudeo quod te interpellavi, I rejoice that I interrupted you. — 

Cic. Legg. III. 1. 
noli piitare pigritia me facere, quod non mea manu scribo, 

do not think that it is through indolence that 1 do not write 

with my own hand. — Id. Att. XVI. 15. 
5 



98 QUESTIONS. §71 

71. Questions. 

Questions are introduced by interrogative Pronouns 
or Adverbs, or by the interrogative Particles num, utrum, 
an, and the Enclitic -ne. 

An Enclitic is a particle joined in spelling to the preceding 
word, but retaining its independent meaning. 

I. The enclitic -ne is used in questions asked for informa- 
tion merely ; nonne when the answer yes, and num when 
the answer no, is expected : as, 

qui sunt hi? who are they? — Cic. Rose. 27. 

meministisne ? do you remember ? — Id. 28. 

nonne his vestigiis ad caput maleficii perveniri solet? is 

it not customary to come by these traces to the source of a 

crime? — Id. 27. 
num diibium est ? is there any doubt ? — Id. 37. 

The interrogative particle is often omitted : as, 
patere tua consilia non sentis ? do you not perceive that your 
plans lie open. — Cic. Cat. I. 1. 

i 

II. In double questions, utrum or -ne stands in the first 
member, an (annon, necne), in the second : as, 

utrum has corporis an Pythagorae tibi malis vires ingenii 
dari? ivoidd you rather this strength of body should be 
given you, or the strength of intellect of Pythagoras ? — Cic. 
de Senect. 10. 

quaero servosne an liberos, I ask whether slaves or free. — 
Id. Rose. Am. 27. 

The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem- 
ber: as, 

sunt haec tua verba necne ? are these your words or not ? — 
Cic. Tusc. III. 18. 

Sometimes the first member is omitted, and an alone asks a 
question with indignation or surprise : as, 

an tu miseros piitas illos ? do you think that those men are 
miserable ? — Cic. Tusc. I. 7. 



§§ 72, 73 PARTICIPLES. — GERUND. 99 

72. Participles. 

The time of participles, like that of infinitives, is 
relative to that of the verbs upon which they depend. 

1. Participles are often used where the English idiom 
would require a subordinate clause : as, 

venienti in Ligures Hannibali duo quaestores Roman! tra- 
duntur, as Hannibal is entering among the Ligurians, two 
Boman qucestors are given into his hands. — Liv. XXI. 59. 

instructos ordines in locum aequum deducit, he draws up the 
lines, and leads them into a favorable place. — Sail. Cat. 59. 
See examples in § 25, page 27. 

2. Sometimes a perfect participle agreeing with a noun is 
used when the action rather than the thing is to be made 
prominent : as, 

ab urbe condita, from the founding of the city. — Liv. (title). 

3. As there is no perfect active participle in Latin, the 
perfect passive, used absolutely with the noun which would 
have been the object, is used to express active relations : as, 

his initis conslliis oppida muniunt, having formed these plans, 
they fortify their towns. — Cses. B.G. III. 9. 
See, respecting the Ablative Absolute, § 54, vin. 

73. Gebund and Gerundive. 

The Gerund governs the same case as the verb ; in 
grammatical construction it follows the same rules 
with nouns. But where the gerund would have an 
object in the accusative, the gerundive is regularly 
used instead, agreeing with the noun, and in the case 
which the gerund would have had : as, 

paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda, better prepared to 
meet all dangers. — Cses. B.G. I. 5. 
Subeunda agrees with pericula, which is governed by ad; 
the construction with the gerund would be ad subeundum omnia 
pericula, ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing the 
accusative pericula. 



100 GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. §73 

I. The nominative of the gerund or gerundive is construed 
with the dative of persons, implying obligation or duty : as, 
pugnandum est nobis, we must fight, — i.e. fighting is our busi- 
ness, or it belongs to us to fight (compare § 51, vi., vin.). 

Caesari omnia rnio tempore erant agenda, Ccesar had every- 
thing to do at once. — Cass. B.G. II. 20. 

juveni parandum seni utendum est, it is for the young to 
get, for the old to e?y'oy. — Sen. Ep. 36. 

The Infinitive is also used as a verbal noun, like the Gerund, 
taking the Genitive, or the neuter of the Possessive, to express pos- 
session or duty (§ 50, i. 1.), while the Gerund takes the Dative : as, 
sapientis est parcius bibere ; or, sapienti est parcius biben- 
dum, it is for a wise man to drink rather sparingly. 

Where the use of the dative as agent would be ambiguous — 
as in verbs governing the dative — a different construction must 
be used : thus, 
ei parcendum est means either he must spare or he must be 

spared ; but ei parcendum est a nobis, he must be spared 

by us. 

II. The genitive is construed as an objective genitive 
(§ 50, in.), following nouns and adjectives : as, 

neque consilii habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato, 

time being given neither for forming plans nor for taking 
arms. — Cses. B.G. IV. 14. 

It is used especially with causa or gratia to express the 

purpose of an action: as, 

dissimulandi causa aut sui expurgandi, for the sake of dis- 
sembling or of excusing himself. — Sail. Cat. 31. 

Or even alone, the word causa being understood : as, 

impediendae rei, in order to give check. — Caes. B.C. I. 82. 

The gerund is sometimes used with the genitive of an object 

not agreeing with it in gender or number : as, 

sui liberandi facultas, the opportunity of getting themselves clear. 
— Cses. B.G. IV. 34. 

ego ejus videndi cupidus, recta consequor, eager to see her, 
I follow straight. — Ter. Hec. III. 3, 12. 



§74 SUPINE. 101 

III. The dative follows words expressing purpose or fit- 
ness : as, 

comitia consulibus creandis, comitia for appointing consuls. — 
Liv. XXXV. 24. (Gerund, consules creando.) 

te sociani studeo scribendis versibus esse, 1 desire that thou 
[Venus] be my partner in writing verses. — Lucr. I. 25. 

It is used especially to designate the functions of magistrates : 
as, 

decemviri stlitibus [litibus] judicandis, the Board of ten for 
determining lawsuits. 

IV. The accusative follows the prepositions ad, inter, and 
ob (occasionally ante, circa, in) : as, 

me vocas ad scribendum, you invite me to write. — Cic. Orat. 10. 
nactus aditus ad ea conanda, having found means to under- 
take these things. — Cses. B.C. I. 31. 

V. The ablative is used after the prepositions at), de, ex, 
and in ; or to express manner or means : as, 

in quaerendis suis, in seeking his own comrades. — Cags. B.G. 

II. 21 (Gerund, in quaerendo suos). 
multa pollicendo persuadet, he persuades by large promises. — 

Sail. Jug. 46. 

74. Supine. 

I. The Former Supine (in um) follows verbs of motion 
to express the purpose of the motion (compare § 55, in. 2) : 
as, 

quid est, Crasse, inquit Julius, imusne sessum? etsi admoni- 
tum venimus te non flagitatum, what now, Crassus, said 
Julius, shall toe take our seats ? although we have come to 
remind, not to entreat you. — Cic. de Orat. III. 5. 

II. The Latter Supine (in u) is found only in a few 
verbs, especially those which express telling, hearing, and the 
like. It has a passive sense, and follows certain adjectives 
which describe the character of the action : as, 

difficile est dictu, it is hard to say [in the telling]. — Cic. de 
Lege Manil. 22. 



102 GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX. §75 

75. General Rules of Syntax. 

I. A Noun used to describe another agrees with it in Case 

(Apposition) . — § 46. 
II. Adjectives agree with Nouns in Gender, Number, and 

Case. — §47. 
III. Relatives agree with their Antecedents in Gender, Num- 
ber, and Person. — § 48. 
IY. A Verb agrees with its Subject Nominative in Number and 

Person. — §49. 
V. The Genitive is used — 

1. (Subjective) to define or limit the meaning of a Noun. 

— §50.1. 

2. (Partitive) to denote the Whole after words signifying a 

Part. —Id. ii. 

3. (Objective) after Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs, espe- 

cially those implying mental action or emotion. — Id. 

III., IV. 

VI. The Dative is used — 

1. After words implying Advantage or Disadvantage. — 

§51,i. 

2. As the case of the Indirect Object. — Id. n. 

3. After many compounds of Prepositions. — Id. v. 

4. With esse, to denote Possession or Purpose. — Id. vi. 

VIII. 

VII. The Accusative is the case — 

1. Of the Direct Object. — § 52, i. 

2. Of the Secondary Object after many verbs. — Id. in. 

3. As the subject of the Infinitive. — Id. vi. • 

VIII. The Ablative is used — * 

1. To express Cause, Means, and Specification. — §54, i. 

2. With an Adjective, to express Manner or Quality. — 

Id. ii. 

3. As the Object after certain Verbs and Adjectives, — 

Id. m. 

4. After Comparatives. — Id. v. 

5. After words of Separation, Plenty, and Want. — Id. vi. 

6. Of Subject and Predicate, in Apposition (Ablative Abso- 

lute). — Id. x. 



§76 ARRANGEMENT. 103 

IX. Time when takes the ablative ; time how long and distance 
how far the accusative. — § 55, i., n. 
X. Relations of Place are expressed without prepositions, in 
the names of Towns and small Islands. — Id. in. 
XI. Twenty-six Prepositions govern the accusative ; eleven the 
ablative. — § 56, i. 
XII. The Agent, after the passive voice, is expressed by the 
ablative with ab. — Id. iv. 

XIII. In Compound Sentences, a primary tense is followed by a 

primary, and a secondary tense by a secondary. — § 57. 

XIV. The Indicative Mood is regularly employed for the leading 

verb, and the Subjunctive in dependent clauses. — 
§58,i.ii. 
XV. The Infinitive may be used as the Subject or as the Object 
of the leading verb. — Id. iv. 

XVI. The subject of the Infinitive is put in the Accusative. — 

§52, vi.; §67,1.2. 

XVII. Participles, Gerunds, and Supines govern the case of their 

own verbs ; but in grammatical construction they fol- 
low the rules of nouns and adjectives. — §§ 72, 73, 74. 
For a summary of the uses of the Subjunctive, see § 58, n. 



76. Arrangement. 

The Arrangement of words in a Latin sentence is not arbi- 
trary, but depends greatly on the skill of the writer to give 
emphasis, harmony, and clearness. 

In general, the Subject stands first, and the Verb last, in 
the sentence or clause to which they belong. The Object 
commonly precedes pretty closely the verb which governs it. 
A relative clause often goes before that containing the ante- 
cedent, especially when any stress is laid upon it. " In all 
ordinary cases, the adjective follows the noun, the genitive its 
governing substantive, and the apposition the word which it 
qualifies." 

The most emphatic words in a sentence are the first and 
the last ; but emphasis is given by any unusual arrangement 
of the words. 



104 ARRANGEMENT. §76 

Thus the usual order of words to express the phrase, the work- 
man built me a house, would be : artifex mihi domum aedifica- 
vit. But either domum, aedificavit, or mihi may be emphasized 
by being put first ; and artifex, by being put last. 

If care is taken, in reading Latin aloud, — observing both 
emphasis and quantity as well as accent, — to bring out the sense 
and balance of the parts, it will be seen that great skill has been 
exercised in this particular by the classical writers. 

Latin expresses the relation of words to each other by 
inflection, rather than by position, like modern languages. 
Hence its structure not only admits of great variety in the 
arrangement of words, but is especially favorable to that form 
of sentence which is called a Period. In a period, the sense 
is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and is held in sus- 
pense till the delivery of the last word, which usually ex- 
presses the main action or motive. A careful attention to 
examples quoted in the Syntax will show the flexibility and 
force that can be given to the language in this way. 

An English sentence does not often admit this form of 
structure. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and 
beauty, by many of the early writers of English prose ; but 
its effect is better seen in poetry, in such a passage as the 
following : — 

" High on a throne of royal state, which far 
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, 
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand 
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, 
Satan exalted sat." 

Paradise Lost. Book II. 1-5. 



PART THIRD. 

RULES OF VERSE. (PROSODY.) 



77. Rhythm. 

The poetry of the ancients was not governed, like modern 
poetry, by accent and rhyme ; but was measured, like music, 
by the length of the syllables, or vowel sounds. The meas- 
ured flow of verse is called Rhythm. 

Each syllable is considered as either long or short, — in 
quantity or length, not in quality or sound ; a long syllable 
being reckoned in length equal to two short ones. 

The quantity of radical or stem-syllables, as of short a in 
pater or of long a in mater, can be learned only by observa- 
tion or practice, unless determined by the general rules of 
quantity. 

A radical vowel, when not made short or long under the 
general rules of quantity, is said to be determined by the 
Authority of the poets. 

78. Rules of Quantity. 

Note. —The Rules of Quantity do not in all cases apply to 
numerous Greek words, especially proper names, which have been 
introduced by the Latin poets. 

I. General Rules. (See §3, p. 3.) 

1. A vowel before another vowel is short. 
Examples, via, way ; traho, draw. 

5* 



106 RULES OF QUANTITY. §78 

Exceptions. In the genitive form ius, i is common, but has 
the accent : as in nulli/us, ipsi'us ; but it is long in alius. 

In fio i is long, except when followed by er : as, flam, f lerem. 

In the fifth declension, e is long between two vowels : as in 
diei; but after a consonant, as in fidei, it is short. 

In many Greek proper names the vowel in Latin represents a 
long vowel or diphthong, and is consequently long : as in Thalia. 

2. A diphthong is long : as in foedus, cui, delnde. 

Exc. The preposition prae in composition before a vowel is 
generally short: as in praeustis. — iEn. VII. 524. 

3. A vowel formed by contraction is long : as i in nil for 
nihil. 

4. A vowel before two consonants or a double consonant, 
also before the letter j, is long : as, magnus, great ; rex, king ; 
pejor, worse ; et ventis ocior, and swifter than winds. 

But a. short vowel before a mute followed by 1 or r is 
common, — that is, it may be long in verse : as in volucris, 
bird. 

A short vowel, made long under this rule, is said to be long by 
Position ; as e in docetne. In docesne, the same vowel is long 
by the special rule (n. 3). 

Note. — The above rules of Position do not apply to final 
vowels. 

II. Final Syllables. 

1. Words of one syllable ending in a vowel are long : as, 
me, tu, hi, ne. 

The attached particles -ne, -que, -ve, -ce, -pte, and re- (red-), 
are short ; se- is long : as, secedit exercitumque reducit, he 

withdraws, and leads bach the army. 

2. Nouns of one syllable are long : as, sol, sun ; 03, mouth; 
bos, ox; vis, force. 

Exc. mel, honey ; 6s, bone; vir, man ; cor, heart; fel, gall. 

3. Final as, es, OS, are long : final is, US, ys, are short : 
as, nefas, wrong ; rupes, rode ; hcstis, enemy. 



§78 RULES OF QUANTITY. 107 

Exc. as is short in some Greek terminations : as, lampadas, 
tor dies, 

es is short in nouns of the third declension whose stem ends in 
d or t: as, hospes, guest (exc. abies, aries, paries, pes) ; in the 
present of esse, and in the preposition penes. 

os is short in compos, impos, and some Greek endings. 

is in plural cases is long : as in bonis ; also, as the character- 
istic ending of the fourth conjugation : as audis ; and in sis, vis, 
velis, malis, nolis ; gratis, foris ; and sometimes in -eris. 

us is long in the gen. sing, and in the plural of the fourth de- 
clension : as aciis, needles ; also in nouns of the third declension 
which increase long : as virtus. 

4. Most final syllables ending in a consonant except c are 
short : as, ad, ac, at, amat, aniatur. 

Exc. donee . fac, nee ; non, quin, sin ; eras, plus, cur, par; 

5. Final a in words declined is short, except in the abl. 
sing, feminine : as, ea stella, that star ; cum ea stella, with 
that star. 

In all other words it is long : as, frustra, in vain ; voca, 
call 

Exc. ita, so; quia, because; puta, suppose; and, in late use, 
triginta, thirty, etc. 

6. Final e is short, except in nouns of the fifth declension ; 
in adverbs formed from adjectives of the first form ; and in 
verbs of the second conjugation : as, nave, ducite, vere, 
mane, fide, quare (qua re), hodie (hoc die). 

Exc. fame; bene, male; fere, ferme ; also (rarely), cave, 
habe, tace, vale, vide; inferne, superne. 

7. Final i is long: as, navi, fill, audi. But it is common 
in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi ; and short in nisi, quasi, cui. 

8. Final is common ; but long in datives and ablatives ; 
also, usually, in verbs. 

Exc. cito, illico, profecto, dummodo, imo, ego, duo, octo. 

9. Final U is long ; final y is short. 



108 RULES OF QUANTITY. § f§ 

III. Penultimate Syllables. 

Definition. — A Noun is said to Increase, when in any 
case it has more syllables than in the nominative singular, 
which is called the Theme. 

Thus Stella is said to increase long in the gen. pi., stellarum; 
and corpus, to increase short in the gen. sing., corporis. 

A Verb is said to increase, when in any part it adds more 
than one syllable to the root or stem. 

Thus voco is said to increase long in the second person plu- 
ral, vocatis ; and rego to increase short in the second person 
plural, regitis. 

The final syllable, added to the root or stem, is called the 
Termination : as in stell-a, nav-is, voe-at, reg-is. 

The syllable added before the termination is called the 
Increment : as, a in stellarum, o in corporis. 

In itmeribus, amaveritis, the syllables marked are called the 
first, second, and third Increments of the noun or verb. 

In a few words, the root consists only of a consonant, or com- 
bination of consonants, from which the radical vowel has been 
dropped: as, scimus, s umus (es). 

1. In the Increment of Nouns and Adjectives, a and are 
generally long ; e, i, U, y, are generally short : as, 

aetatis, servorum, honoris, operis, carminis, murmuris, pecu- 
dis, chlamydis. 

Exc. a in baccar (-axis), hepar (-atis), jubar, lar, mas (ma- 
ris), nectar, par, sal, vas (vadis), daps (dapis). 

6 in neuters of third declension; also in arbor (-oris), inops 
(-opis), scrobs (scrobis). 

e in the fifth declension; also in haeres (-edis), lex (legis), 
locuples (-etis), merces (-edis), plebs (plebis), quies (-etis), 
rex (regis), ver (veris). 

i in most nouns and adjectives in ix: as, radicis, felicis (exc. 
filix, nix, strix) ; also dis (ditis), glis (gliris), lis (litis), vis 
(vires)', Quirites, Samnites. 

u in lux (lucis) , frux (frugis) ; also in forms from nom. in 
us: as, paludis, telluris. 



§78 RULES OF QUANTITY. 109 

2. In the Increment of Verbs (see Tables of Inflection, 
pp. 34-37), the characteristic Vowels are as follows : — 

Of the first conjugation a : as, vocare, vocatur. 
Of the second conjugation e : as, monere, monetur. 
Of the third conjugation e, 1 : as, regere, regitur. 
Of the fourth conjugation I : as, audire, auditur. 
Exc. do and its compounds have a : as, dare, circumdabat. 

In other increments — 

a is always long : as, monearis, regamus. 

e is long in tense-endings : as, regebam, audiebar. 

But it is short before ram, rim, ro ; and in the personal 
endings -beris, -bere : as, 
rexerat, rexerit, amaberis, monebere. 

1 is long in forms after the analogy of the fourth conjuga- 
tion : as, petivi, lacessitum. 

Also in simus. sitis, velimus, and rarely in the terminations 
-rimus and -ritis ; but short in the future of the first and second 
conjugations : as, vocabitis. 

is found only in imperatives, and is always long : as, 
monitote. 

U is found only in the supine stem and its derivatives, and 
is always long : as in soluturus ; except in sumus, futurus, 
volumus, nolumus, malumus. 

3. Perfects and Supines of two syllables have the stem- 
s) liable long : as, f ugi, vldi, visum, from f ugio, video. 

Exc. bib- ded- (do), fid- (findo), scid- (scindo), stet- 
(sto), stit- (sisto), till- (fero) ; cit- (cieo), dat- (do), it- (eo), 
lit- (lino), quit- (queo), rat- (reor), rut- (ruo), sat- (sero), 
sit- (sino) , stat- (sisto) ; but stat- from sto. 

4. The root or stem-syllable generally retains its quantity 
through all the forms derived from it ; but when doubled by 
reduplication (see pp. 33, 39), the first syllable is short: as, 
tiilit, attulerat ; vidi, viderit ; cado, cecidit ; caedo, cecidit. 

Exc. dico (die-), duco (due-), fides (fid-); and some in- 
crements of nouns: as, legis (leg-), vocis (voc-). 



110 RULES OF QUANTITY. §78 

5. The following terminations are preceded by a long 
vowel : — 

i. -al, -ar : as, vectigal, pulvlnar. 
Exc. animal, capital, jiibar. 

ii. -brum, -crum, -trum : as, lavacrum, delubrum, vera- 
trum. 

in. -do, -ga, -go : as, formldo, auriga, Imago. 

Exc. cado, divido, edo, modo, solido, spado, trepido; 
caliga, fuga, toga, plaga ; ago, ego. 

iv. -le, -les, -lis : as, anclle, miles, crudelis, hostilis. 

Exc. male ; indoles, soboles ; gracilis, hiimilis, similis 
sterilis ; and verbal adjectives in His : as, amabiiis, dociiis 
facilis. 

v. -ma, -men, -mentum : as, poema, flumen, jumentnm. 

Exc. anima, lacrima, victima ; tamen, coliimen ; with 
regimen and the like from verb-stems. 

vi. -mus, -nus, -rus, -sus, -tus : as, extremus, supmus, 
octoni, severus, fumosus, peritus. 

Exc. (a.) l before -mus : as, f initimus, maritimus (except 
bimus, trimus, quadrimus, opimus, mimus, limus) ; and in 
superlatives (except imus, primus) ; domus, humus, nemus, 
calamus, thalamus. 

(b.) l before -nus : as in crastinus, fraxinus and the like (ex- 
cept matutinus. vespertinus, repentinus) ; asinus, cominus, 
eminus, dominus, f acinus, protinus, terminus, vaticinus ; 
manus, oceanus, platanus ; genus ; bonus, onus, sonus. 

(c.) e before -rus : as, merus, hedera (except procerus, 
sincerus, severus) ; also barbarus, chorus, nurus, pirus ; satira, 
amphora, ancora, lyra, purpura ; forum, parum. 

(d.) latus, metus, vetus, digitus, servitus, spiritus ; quo- 
tus, tbtus ; habitus, and the like. 

vn. -na, -ne, -nis : as, carina, mane, inanis. 

Exc. advena, domina, foemina, machina, mina, gena, pagi- 
na ; bene, sine ; canis, cinis, juvenis. 



§ 79 FEET. Ill 

viii. -re, -ris, -ta, -tis : as, altare, salutaris, moneta, inti- 
mitis. 

Exc. mare, hilaris, rota, nota, sitis, potis, and most nouns 
in -ita. 

ix. -tim, -turn, and syllables beginning with V : as, priva- 
tim, quercetum, oliva. 

Exc. affatim, statim ; nivis (nix) ; brevis, gravis, levis 
(light) ; novus, novem ; and several verb-roots : as, juvo, f aveo. 

x. -dex, -lex, -mex, -rex, -dix, -nix, and the numeral 
endings -ginti, -ginta : as, judex, Ilex. 

Exc. ciilex, silex, rumex. 

6. The following terminations are preceded by a short 
vowel : — 

i. -cus, -dus, -lus : as, rusticus, calidus, gladiolus. 

Exc. bpacus, amicus ; apricus, f icus, mendicus, pudicus ; 
fidus, nidus, sidus ; and u before -dus: as, crudus, nudus; 
e before -lus, as phaselus (except gelus, scelus) ; asilus. 

ii. -no, -nor, -ro, -ror, in verbs : as, destino, criminor, 
gero, queror. 

Exc. festino, propino, sagino, opinor, inclino ; declare* , 
spero, spiro, oro, duro, miror. 

in. -ba, -bo, -pa, -po : as, f aba, bibo, lupa, crepo. 

Exc. gleba, scriba ; bubo, nubo, scribo ; papa, pupa, ripa, 
scopa, stupa; capo, repo, stipo. 

iv. -tas (in nouns), -ter and -tus (in adverbs) : as, ClVl- 
tas, fortiter, penitus. 

The above rules and exceptions include all Latin words in 
common use. 

79. Feet. 

The most natural division of musical time is into intervals, 
consisting of either two or three equal parts. In music, this 
is called double or triple time. 

These intervals are in music called Measures ; in prosody, 
they are called Feet ; and the parts are indicated by the 
number or length of the syllables of which the feet consist. 



112 FEET. §79 

The feet most frequently employed in Latin poetry, with 
their musical notation, are the following : — 

Of two Syllables. 
!• -s- | h \j | Pyrrich : as, lapis. 
2. -g- I T h I Trochee (choree) : as, carus. 

3 1 I 
-^t- i,i Iambus : as, bbnos. 

9 I 4 I 

4.-4- Spondee : as, ventos. 

Of three Syllables. 
5. -2. I f f I Dactyle : as, attulit. 

i, k { I Anapaest : as, dominos. 



6. 


2 




4 


7. 


2 
4 


8. 


3 




8 


9. 


A 


10. 


4 


11. 





J f J I Amphibrach : as, videntis. 





• • ^ 








Tribrach : as, hommis. 
Molossus : as, duxerunt (rare). 
r r I Amphimacer (Cretic) : as, egerant (rare) . 
U\\ I Bacchms : as, regebant. 

Feet of four syllables are combinations of those of two. 
The following only require special notice. 

12. 
13. 
14. 

The first, second, third, or fourth Epitritus has a short syllable 
in the first, second, third, or fourth place, with three long syllables. 

The first, second, third, or fourth Paeon has a long syllable in 
the first, second, third, or fourth place, with three short syllables. 

Note. — Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recita- 
tion, or chant ; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or music, 
often to be accompanied by measured movements, or dance. But 
in reading, it is not usual to keep the strict measure of time ; and 
often the accent is substituted for rhythm, as in prose. 



3 
4 


| 

1 1 U^l 


Choriambus: as, contulerant. 


3 
4 


\ 9 9 9 9 

1 1 1 U V \ 


Greater Ionic : as, conjecerat. 


3 

4 


1 9 9 9 9 1 

1 1/ V 1 ! 1 


Lesser Ionic: as, rettilissent. 



§80 SCANNING. 113 

The accented syllable of each foot is called the Arsis ; and 
the unaccented part, the Thesis. 

Accent, in prosody, is called Ictus, — that is, the beat of the 
foot, as in dancing. 

A rhetorical pause occurring within the limits of a verse is 
called Csesu'ra. 

The position in the verse of the principal Caesura is important, - 
as affecting the melody or rhythm. It usually falls in hexameter 
after the Arsis, or accented syllable, of the third or fourth foot in 
the verse. 

Note. — In modern poetry, even in modern Greek, quantity 
is disregarded, and the names of ancient feet are applied to com- 
binations of accented and unaccented syllables. Thus fully and 
foolish are both called Trochees, although the quantity of fully 
is w ~ ; so impel and impale are both called Iambs. It is difficult, 
therefore, to imitate well in modern verse those Latin metres which 
contain two or three long syllables in succession, because accents 
seldom come naturally on successive syllables. 

Owing to this disregard of quantity by the modern ear, the 
easiest way for a modern reader to get a peculiar melody from 
Latin verse is to accent (in verse) every long syllable, and no short 
one. Thus as prose the second verse of " Integer Vitse " would 
be accented thus : — 

" non eget Mauris jaculis ncque arcu : " 
while in poetry it is to be accented thus : — 

il ndn eget Mauris jaculis nequ' arcu," 
like the free rendering in English : — 

"needeth not bow, spear, nor a rattling quiver. " 

80. Scanning. 

A single line in poetry is called a Verse. 

To divide the verse in reading into its appropriate feet, 
according to the rules of quantity and versification, is called 
Scanning, — that is, a climbing, or advance by steps. 

A verse lacking a syllable at the beginning is called Ace- 
phalous ; lacking a syllable at the end it is called Catalectic* 



114 METRE. § 81 

Note. — It is recommended that the student should habitually 
scan every verse he meets in the course of his study. In reading 
or recitation, while the prose accent should be retained, the flow 
of the verse may be in some degree preserved by due attention to 
the rules of quantity. This is called Metrical Reading. 

In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word — 
sometimes even at the end of a verse — is dropped, when the 
next word begins with a vowel or with h. This is called 
Synalcepha, or Elision ; or, at the end of a verse, Synapheia. 

A final m, with the preceding vowel, is dropped in like 
manner. This is called Ecthlipsis. 

Hence a final syllable in m is generally reckoned to have no 
quantity of its own ; its vowel, in any case, being either elided or 
else made long by position. 

Elision is sometimes omitted when the final syllable has a 
special emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This is called 
Hiatus. 

A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened 
before a pause. It is then said to be long by Caesura. 

The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long 
or short. 

81. Metre. 

Metre is a regular combination of feet in verse, and is 
named from its most frequent or ruling foot, as Dactylic, 
Iambic, Trochaic, Anapaestic. 

The ruling foot, so called, always consists of a combination 
of long and short syllables, and is therefore never a pyrrich or 
spondee. 

A Verse consists of a given number of feet arranged metri- 
cally. It is named from the number of feet it contains, as 
Hexameter, Trimeter. 

A Stanza consists of a definite number of verses ranged 
in a fixed order. It is often called from the name of some 
favorite poet, as Sapphic, Alcaic, Horatian. 



§82 FORMS OP VERSE. 115 

82. Forms op Verse. 

The most common forms of Latin verse are these : — 

I. The Dactylic Hexameter, called also Heroic verse, used 
in narrative and pastoral poetry. It consists of six feet, of 
which the last is always a Spondee, the fifth generally a Dac- 
tyle, and the rest indifferently spondees or dactyles. 

When the fifth foot is a spondee, the verse is called Spon- 
daic. 

The introductory verses of the iEneid, divided according to 
the foregoing rules, will be as follows, 'the principal Caesura in 
each verse being marked by double lines : — 

arma vi|rumque ca|no || Tro|jae qui | primus ab j oris 

Italijam. fa [to profu|gus || La|vinaque | venit 

litora, | mult' ill' | et ter|ris [| ja|ctatus et | alto 

vi supe|rum sae|vae || memo|rem Ju|nonis 6b | iram ; 

multa quo|qu' et bel|lo pas|sus || dum | conderet | urbem, 

infer |retque de|os Lati|o, || geniis | unde La|tinum 

Alba|nique pa|tres, || at|qu' altae | moenia | Romae. 

The Hexameter verse has been illustrated in English thus : — 
" Strongly it | bears us a|long, in I swelling and \ limitless | billows, 
Nothing be|fore and | nothing bejhind, but the I sky and the I ocean." 

II. Dactylic Pentameter : consisting of five feet, and used 
alternately with the Hexameter, to form the Elegiac stanza. 
It is usually divided, in scanning, into two half verses, of which 
the latter always has two dactyles, and each ends in a single 
long syllable, or half-foot : as, 

cum siibit | illi|u3 trisjtissima | noctis i|mago 

quae mini | supre|mum || tempus in | urbe fu|it, 

cum repe|to no|ctem qua | tot mihi | cara rejliqui, 
labitur | ex 6cu|lis || nunc quoque | gutta me|is. 

jam prope | lux ade|rat, qua | me disjcedere | Caesar 
finibiis | extre|mae || jusserat | Ausbni|ae. 

Ov. Trist. I. El. 3, 1-6. 

The Elegiac Stanza has been illustrated thus : — 

" In the hex|ameter ' rises the | fountain's | silvery | column, 
. In the pentlameter | still || falling in | melody I back." 



116 FORMS OF VERSE. §82 

III. Iambic Trimeter (senarius) : consisting of three meas- 
ures, each containing a double Iambus. In the first half- 
measure a spondee or anapaest is often substituted for the 
iambus ; and other substitutions are occasionally used. This 
verse is used chiefly in dramatic dialogue. 

In the following example, it alternates with the Iambic Dimeter, 
which consists of two similar double feet : — 

beatiis il|le qui procul | negotiis, 

ut prisca gens | mortalium, » 

paterna pu|ra bub us ex|ercet siiis, 
solutus 6|mni foenore, . . . 

forumque vi|tat et super |ba civium 
potentio|rum limma. 

Hon. Epod. II. 1-8. 

IV. Alcaic Strophe, or Stanza : consisting of four verses. 
The first two verses (greater Alcaic) have for their base each 
five Iambuses, for the first and third of which a spondee is 
substituted, and for the fourth an anapaest ; the third verse 
is the same, but with one complete and one half iambus in 
the last two feet ; the fourth verse consists of two anapaests 
and an iambus, preceded and followed by a single syllable, or 
half-foot : as, 

just' ac | tena|cem pro|positi | virum 
non ci|vi' ar|dor pra|va juben|tium 
non vul|tiis in|stantis | tyran|ni 

men|te quatit | sollda | nequ' au|ster. 

Id. Od. III. 3, 1-4. 

Or, the first verse may be divided into a spondee, bacchius, and 
two dactyles; the second into a spondee, bacchius, and two 
trochees; and the third into two dactyles and two trochees. 

V. Sapphic Stanza : consisting of three Sapphic verses 
and one Adonic. 

The base of the Sapphic verse is five Trochees, for the 
second of which a spondee, and for the third a dactyle, is 
substituted. 



§82 FORMS OF VERSE. 117 

The Adonic verse consists simply of a dactyle and spondee 
(or Trochee) : as, 

jam sajtis ter|ris nivis | atque | dirae 
grandi|nis mi|sit pater | et rii|bente 
dexte|ra sa|cras jacu|latiis | arces 
terruit | urbem. 

Id. Od. I. 2, 1-4. 

Or, the Sapphic verse may be regarded as consisting of a Trochee, 
Spondee, Choriambus, and Bacchius. 

VI. Lesser Asclepiadic : consisting of a spondee, two 
choriambs, and an iambus. 

Maecenas atavis | edite re | gibus 

O et | praesid! et | dulce decus | meum. 

Id. Od. I. 1. 1, 2. 

VII. This verse is often joined with the Gly conic, con- 
sisting of a spondee, choriambus, and trochee, making the 
First Asclepiadic Stanza : as, 

Romae | principis ur|bium 
digna|tur soboles | inter ama|bfles 

vatum | p5nere me | chbros ; 
et jam | dente minus | mordeor in|vido. 

Id. Od. IV. 3, 13-16. 

VIII. Or, three Asclepiadics with one Glyconic, making 
the. Second Asclepiadic Stanza : as, 

audis | quo strepitu | janua quo | nemus 
inter | pulchra satum | tecta remujgiat 
ventis | et positas | ut glaciet j mves 
puro I numine Julpiter. 

Id. Od. III. 10, 5-8. 

IX. Or, two Asclepiadics are joined with one Pherecratic 
(the same with the Glyconic, lacking one syllable) and one 
Glyconic, making the Third Asclepiadic stanza : as, 

hie bel|lum lacrymo|s' hie miseram | famem 
pestem|qu' a popiir 5t | principe Caejsar' in 
Persas | atque Britan|nos 
vestra | motiis aget | prece. 

Id. Od. III. 21, 13-16. 



118 FORMS OP VERSE. §82 

The above forms include upwards of a hundred of the 
Odes of Horace. In the eighteen not included, he employs 
twelve different kinds of stanzas, most of which are combi- 
nations of the verses already given. They may be briefly 
indicated as follows : — 

1. Choriambic Pentameter (Greater Asclepiadic) : 

tu ne | quaesieris | scire nefas | quern mini quern | tibi. 

(Od. I. 11, 18; IV. 10.) 

2. Hexameter, followed by the last four feet of an hexame- 
ter.— (Od. I. 7, 28; Epod. 12.) 

3. Hexameter, followed by Iambic Dimeter. — Epod. 14, 15. 

4. Trimeter Iambic alone. — Epod. 17. 

5. Choriambic Dimeter and Tetrameter : as, 

Lydia die | per omnes 
te deos o|ro Sybarin | cur properas | amando. — Od. I. 8. 

6. Hexameter, followed by Iambic Trimeter. — Epod. 16. 

7. Verse of four Lesser Ionics. — Od. III. 12. 

8. Hexameter with Dactylic Penthemim (five half- feet) : 

diffu|gere m|ves rede|unt jam | gramina | campis 
arbori|busque co|mae. — Od. IV. 7. 

9. Iambic Trimeter ; Dactylic Penthemim ; Iambic Dimeter. — 
Epod. 11. 

10. Hexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic Penthemim.— -Ep.13. 

11. Archilochian Heptameter ; Iambic Trimeter catalectic : as, 

solvitiir | acris hi|ems gra|ta vice | veris | et fa|voni 
trahunt|que sic|cas ma|chinae | cari|nas. — Od. I. 4. 

12. Iambic Dimeter and Trimeter, each imperfect : as, 

non [ ebur | nequ' au|reum 
mea | reni|det in | domo | lacu|nar. — Od. II. 18. 

In dramatic dialogue, the Trochaic Tetrameter catalectic, or 
Septenarius, is occasionally used, consisting regularly of fifteen 
syllables, : — the same with the 8's and 7's of the common ballad 
measure, — usually with various irregularities : as, 

ad t'adv&iio spdm salutem consili' auxili' expetens. 

Ter. Andr. II. 1, 18. 



§83 RECKONING OF TIME AND MONEY. 119 

83. Reckoning of Time. (See § 56, i. 4.) 

(From Allen's Classical Hand-Book.) 

Roman Chronology was reckoned from the building of the 
city, the date of which was assigned by Yarro to B.C. 753. 
In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the 
Christian era, the year of the city is to be subtracted from 
754 ; e.g. a.tj.c. 708 = B.C. 46. 

The first day of each month was called Kalendae, from 
calare, to call ; that being the day on which the priests pub- 
licly announced the new rnoon in the Comitia Calata, which 
they did, originally, after actual observation. Sixteen days 
before this, that is, on the fifteenth day of March, May, July, 
and October, but the thirteenth of the other months, came the 
Idus, or day of the full moon ; eight days before the Ides 
were the Ifonae. The month was thus divided into three 
weeks of eight days, and one of five or seven. The days 
were reckoned backward from these points ; but as it was the 
custom of the Romans always to include the point of departure 
in such calculations, it is necessary, in order to find the day 
of the month, to take this into account. Thus, the day before 
the Kalends, Ides, &c, is called Pridie Kalendas, &c. ; the 
day before this, ante diem (a. d.) tertium Kalendas, &c. 
Therefore, with the Kalends, two must be added to the number 
of days of the preceding month ; with the Nones and Ides, one 
must be added to the day of the month on which they occur ; and 
the day of the date must be taken from the number thus obtained. 
E. g. the sixth day before the Kalends of November : 31 (the 
number of days of October) + 2 = 33 ; 33 — 6 = 27. The 
date will be Oct. 27. — The third day before the Ides of 
March : 15 + 1 = 16 ; 16 — 3 = 13. March 13. 

84. Reckoning of Money. (See § 14.) 

The money of the Romans was in early times wholly 
copper, the unit being the As. This was nominally a pound, 



120 ROMAN PILENOMENS. §85 

but actually somewhat less, in weight, and was divided into 
twelve TJnciae. In the 3d cent. b.c. the as was reduced by 
degrees to one-twelfth of its original value. At the same 
time silver coins were introduced ; the Denarius = 10 asses, 
and the Sestertius, or Sesterce (semis tertius, represented 
by IIS, or HS, = duo et semis) = 2^ asses. The sestertius, 
being probably introduced at a time when it was equal in 
value to the original as, came to be used as the unit (hence 
nummus was used as equivalent to sestertius) ; afterwards, 
by the reductions in the standard, four asses became equal to 
a sesterce. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being 
equal to one hundred sesterces. — Sertertium (M.) = 1000 
sestertii was used as an expression of value, not as a coin. 

In the statement of sums of money in cipher, a line above 
the number indicated thousands ; lines at the sides also, 
hundred-thousands. Thus HS. DC. = 600 sestertii. HS. 
DC. = 600,000 sestertii, or 600 sestertia. HS. [DC] = 60,- 
000,000 sestertii. With the numeral adverb, hundred-thou- 
sands are also understood : as, decies, decies HS., or decies 
sestertium, that is, decies centena millia sestertium, or ten 
times a hundred sestertia = 1,000,000 sestertii. 

85. Roman Pr^nomens, 

WITH THEIR ABBREVIATIONS. (See §15.) 



A. 


Aulus. 


Mam. 


Mamercus 


App. 


Appius. 


N. 


Numerius. 


C. 


Caius. 


P. 


Publius. 


Cn. 


Cneius. 


Q. 


Quintus. 


D. 


Decimus. 


Ser. 


Servius. 


K. 


Kseso. 


Sex. 


Sextus. 


L. 


Lucius. 


Sp. 


Spurius. 


M. 


Marcus. 


T. 


Titus. 


M'. 


Manius. 


Ti. 


Tiberius. 



INDEX.. 



a or ab, 47 ; in composition, 2 ; 
after passive verbs, 77. 

abesse, 30. 

Ablative, 5 ; plural ending, id. ; 
in abus, 6 ; i. 8 ; Syntax, 69 ; 
of cause, etc., id. ; of manner, 
etc., 70; after special verbs 
and adjectives, id. ; after 
comparatives, 71 ; of separa- 
tion, id. ; after opus and 
usus, id. ; of origin, 72 ; of 
price, id. ; absolute, id. ; of 
time, 73 ; of distance, id. ; 
of place, 74 ; of direction, 
75 ; after prepositions, 46, 
75; of agent (with ab), 77, 
of gerunds, 101. 

ac. — Bee atque. 

Accent, 3 ; of ingeni, Vergili, 
etc., 7; of benefacis, etc., 42. 

Accusative, 4 ; ending, 5 ; im, 8. 
Syntax, 66 ; after neuter 
verbs, 67 ; two accusatives, 
id. ; adverbial (synecdoche), 
68 ; in exclamations, id. ; as 
subject of infinitive, id. 92 ; 
of time, 73 ; of space, id. ; 
of distance, id. ; of place, 74 ; 
of gerunds, 100. 

ad, 47; in composition, 2, 6^>, 
adesse, 30. 

Adjectives, 14 ; comparison, 
15, 56 ; . agreement, 54 ; as 
nouns, 55; equivalent to gen., 
56 ; denoting a part, id. ; fol- 
lowed by gen., 61 ; by dat. 63. 

Adverbs, 44; numeral, 19; 
comparison, 44 ; partitive, 61. 

aer, ace. aera, 10. 



Agreement, rules of, 53. 

aio, 43. 

-al and -ar, neuter endings, 8. 

Alcaic strophe, 116. 

alius, use, 56; gen., 15. 

Alphabet, 1. 

alter, as correl., 23; gen., 15. 

ambo, declension, 19. 

amplius, peculiar use, 71. 

an (annon), 98. 

ante, in expression of time, 73 ; 

in the day of the month, 76 ; 

with quam, 77. 
Antecedent, 57. 
Antepenult, 3. 
antequam, with subjunctive, 

86. 
apage, 43. 
Apodosis, 81 ; in oratio ob- 

liqua, 92. 
Apposition, 53 ; with locative 

case, 54. 
aptus, followed by subjunctive, 

90. 
Arrangement, 103. 
Arsis, 113. 

as (Roman coin), 120. 
Asclepiadic verse, 117. 
at, 30 ; compared with verum, 

etc., 48. 
atque (ac) , compared with et, 

etc., 47; in a relative use, 

23, 50. 
audeo, 40. 

aut, compared with vel, etc., 48. 
Autem, compared with at, etc., 

48 ; position, 50. 
Authority in Prosody, 105. 
ave, 43. 



122 



INDEX. 



belli, as a locative, 74. 

bos, declension, 11. 

c for k and q, 1 ; pronuncia- 
tion, 2. 

Caesura, 113. 

Cardinal numbers, 18. • 

Cases, 4. 

cave, in prohibitions, 80. 

causa, with gen. (motive), 69 ; 
of gerunds, 101. 

cedo (defective), 43. 

celo, with two accusatives, 67. 

certe and certo, compared, 
45. 

circum, compounds of, with 
accusative, 67. 

clam, as preposition, 76. 

coepi, 43. 

Collective nouns, with plural 
verbs, 59. 

Comparative, of adjectives, 15 ; 
its use, 17 ; of adverbs, 44 ; 
followed by ablative, 71. 

Comparison, 3 ; of adjectives, 
15 ; irregular, 16 ; of ad- 
verbs, 44; between adjec- 
tives, 17, 56. 

Compound nouns, 52. 

con (cum), in composition, 2. 

Conditional sentences, 81, 92. 

Conjugation, 3 ; rules of, 38 ; 
four conjugations, 32. 

Conjunctions, 47. 

Consonants, 1. 

Copula, 53. 

Correlatives, 23. 

constructio ad sensum, 55. 

cotidie for quotitie, 1. 

Crime, 62. 

cum, prep., appended to pro- 
nouns, 21, 22 ; to express 
manner, &c, 76. 

cum (quum) conj., 49 ; in the 
sense of although, 85; when, 
86 ; because, 87. 

Dactylic measure, 115. 

Dative case, 4 ; ending, 5 ; in 
abus, 6 ; Syntax, 63 ; of 
advantage, 64; ethic, id. ; of 
indirect object, id. ; after cer- 



tain verbs, id. ; after nouns, 
65 ; after prepositions in 
composition, id. ; of posses- 
sion, 66 ; of end, 67 ; after 
the gerundive, id. ; of gerunds, 
101. 

de, compared with ab and ex, 
47 ; in denoting crime, 62. 

debui, with present infinitive, 
79. 

Declension, 3 ; five declensions, 
5 ; first, 6 ; second, 7 ; third, 
8; fourth, 11; fifth, 12; ir- 
regular, 12 ; of adjectives, 
14 ; third declension, 15 ; of 
gerund, 27. 

Definitions in Syntax, 53. 

deinde, following primum, 46. 

Demonstratives, 21 ; correla- 
tives, 23. 

Dentals, 1, 10. 

Deponent verbs, 40. 

Desideratives, 41. 

deus, declined, 7. 

dico, imperative die, 38. 

dies, masc, 12. 

dignus, followed by ablative, 
70 ; by subjunctive, 90. 

Diminutives, 50. 

Diphthongs, 1 ; quantity, 2. 

Direction and distance, 73. 

Distributive numerals, 19. 

divum for deorum, 7. 

domi, 12 ; locative, 79. 

domus, declension, 12. 

donee, with subjunctive, 86. 

duco, imperative due, 38. 

dum, in the sense of while, 79, 
86 ; provided, 85 ; until, 86. 

dummodo, with sub., 85. 

duo, declined, 19. 

dumtaxat, 30. 

Ecthlipsis, 114. 

edo, eat, 42. 

ecus for equus, 1. 

Elegiac verse, 115. 

Elision, 114. 

Endings, personal, of verbs, 30. 

enim, compared with nam, 48 ; 
position, 50. 



1 



INDEX. 



123 



eo, 42. 

Epicenes, 4. 

-er, adj. ending, 3d decl., 15. 

ergo, compared with igitur, 

tjtc, 49. 
es final, pronunciation, 2. 
esse, paradigm, 30. 
est, with preceding word, 2. 
et, compared with que, etc., 47 ; 

et . . . et, 50. 
etenim, 48; position, 50. 
etiam, compared with quo que, 

45. 
etsi, compared with quamvis, 

etc., 85. 
Etymology, 1-52. 
ex, compared with ab and de, 
47 ; in composition, 2 ; for 
partitive genitive, 61. 
Exclamations, 68. 
facio, 42 ; compounds, id. ; im- 
perative fac, 38. 
fari, 43. 

Feet in Prosody, 111. 
fel (genitive fellis), 10. 
fero, 42 ; imperative, fer, 38. 
fido, 40. 

Final syllables, rules of quanti- 
ty in, 106. 
fio, 42 ; quantity, 106. 
fore ut, with subjunctive, 94. 
Formation of words, 50. 
Frequentatives, 41. 
fretus, followed by Abl., 70. 
fruor, governing ablative, 70. 
fungor, governing ablative, 70. 
Future tenses, 29 ; infinitive in 

oratio obliqua, 94. 
g, pronunciation, 2. 
gaudeo, 40. 

Gender, 4; 3d decl. , 11. 
General truths, 79, 83. 
Genitive case, 4 ; ending, 5 ; in 
ai and as, 6 ; in iuixi (plu- 
ral), in vowel stems, 8 ; id. 
in consonant stems, 11 ; in 
ius, 7, 15 ; syntax, 59 ; sub- 
jective, id.; of quality, 60; 
as appositive, id. ; after ad- 
jectives, id., 61; partitive, 



60; objective, 61; after verbs, 
62 ; of measure, 73 ; of ger- 
unds, 100. 

Gerunds, 27 ; syntax, 99, 100. 

Gerundives, 26, 44 ; syntax, 99. 

Glyconic verse, 117. 

Gothic languages, 29. 

Government, 53 ; rules, 59. 

gratia, with gen. (motive), 69. 

Greek nouns, first decl., 6; 
second decl., 7; third decl., 8. 

Greek words in Prosody, 105. 

Hexameter verse, 115. 

Hiatus, 114. 

hie, compared with is, etc., 21. 

Horace, odes of, 118. 

hurni, locative, 74. 

Iambic verse, 116. 

Ictus, 113. 

idcirco, compared with itaque, 
etc., 49. 

rdem, eadem, idem, 22. 

idoneus, followed by subjunc- 
tive, 90. 

id quod, referring to a clause, 
58. 

igitur, compared with idcirco, 
etc., 49; position, 50. 

ille, compared with hie, etc., 
21. 

Imperative, 25 ; future, 26, 80 ; 
passive (formed), 38; syn- 
tax, 80 ; in oratio obliqua, 
93. 

Imperfect tensQ, 28 ; compared 

with perfect, 29. 
Imperfect subjunctive, forma- 
tion, 38 ; in conditional sen- 
tences, 82 ; potential, 83. 
Impersonals, with dative, 65 ; 

of verbs of saying, &c, 94. 
in, compared with ad, 47 ; syn- 
tax, 46, 75 ; in composition, 
2. 
Inceptive or inchoative verbs, 

41. 
Increment, 11 ; quantity, 108. 
Indeclinable nouns, 12; neut. 4. 
Indefinite pronouns, 23 ; cor- 
relatives, id. 



If 



24 



INDEX. 



Id 



idicative, 24; syntax, '80; in l 
J conditional sentences, 82; for ' 
/ subjunctive, 83 ; after quam- j 
/ quam, etc., 85; with cum | 

I temporal, 86 ; after dum, 
white, etc., id. ; with cum in 
sense of quod, 87 ; with quod 
in substantive clauses, 97. 

indignus, followed by ablative, 
70 ; by subjunctive, 90. 

Infinitive, 26 ; syntax, 81 ; his- 
torical, 59 ; time of tenses, 
79 ; subject or object of verb, 
81 ; expressing purpose, id ; 
with subject accusative, 68, 
92 ; after verbs of wishing, 
95 ; after impersonal verbs, 
97; as noun, 56, 81, 100. 

Inflection, 3. 

inquam, 43. 

Instrument and agent, 69, 77. 

Intensive verbs, 41. 

interest, constructions, 63. 

Interrogative pronouns, 22 ; 
correlatives, 23; particles, 
98. 

ipse, 22. 

Irregularities, in nouns, 11, 12 ; 
in comparison, 16 ; in verbs, 
38. 

is, compared with hie, etc., 22. 

iste, compared with is, etc., 22. 

itaque, compared with ergo, 
etc., 49. 

iter, declension, 11. 

ius, gen. 7, 17 ; quantity, 106. 

jam, compared with nunc, 45. 

jecur, declension, 11. 

jubeo, with ace. and inf., 96. 

Juppitsr, declension, 11. 

Labials, 1. 

lac (genitive, lactis), 10. 

lampas, declension, 11. 

licet, 85. 

Liquids, 1. 

Locative case, 5; second decl., 
7; in e, 11, 74 ; syntax, 74; 
with noun in appos., 54. 

magls, maxime, 16. 

malo, 41. 



Measure, 70, 73. 

mei, objective genitive, 20. 

mel (genitive, mellis), 10. 

memini, 43 ; with pres. inf., 79. 

Metre, 114. 

militiae, as a locative, 74. 

mille, 19. 

minus, peculiar use, 71. 

minoris, gen. of price, 72. 

misereor, miseresco and mi- 
seret, with gen., 62. 

modo, with subjunctive, 85. 

Money, reckoning of, 13, 119. 

Months, days of, 76, 119. 

Moods, 24 ; syntax, 80. 

Mute consonants, 1 ; stems, 
third declension, 9. 

nam, compared with enim, 48. 

Names, proper, 13, 120. 

namque, 48 ; position, 50. 

ne, with imperative, 25, 80; in 
final clauses, 88 ; after verbs 
of fearing, 88 ; of hindering, 
, 89 ; omitted, id. 

-ne, in questions, 98. 

nee. — See neque. 

necne, 98. 

neque (nee), 47, 50. 

nequeo, 42. 

nescio an ; nescio quis, 92. 

neuter, gen., 15. 

Neuter Adjectives, 55, 60, 68. 

Neuter endings, 5. 

Neuter part, with opus, 71. 

Neuter verbs, used imperson- 
ally, 44; governing ace, 66. 

neve, 25. 

nisi, 81. 

noli, in prohibitions, 80. 

nolo, 41. 

Nominative case, 4 ; for voca- 
tive, 68; governing ace, 66. 

nonne, 98. 

nostri and nostrum, uses com- 
pared, 20. 

Nouns, 6 ; irregular, 12 ; de- 
fective, id. ; indeclinable, id. ; 
variable, 13. 

nullus, genitive, 15. 

num, 98. 



INDEX. 



125 



Numerals, 18. 

nunc, compared with jam, 45. 

o for u, 2. 

ob, expressing motive, 69. 

Object, 5o. 

Object clauses, 96. 

Oblique cases, 5. 

odi, 43. 

opera, with gen. (instrument), 
69. 

oportuit, with pres. inf., 79. 

opus, followed by abl., 71. 

oratio obliqua, 91. 

Ordinal numbers, 18. 

os, final, pronunciation, 2 ; in 
second declension, 7. 

palam, as preposition, 76. 

Palatals, 1 ; stems, 3d decl., 10. 

Participles, 26 ; examples of 
use, 27 ; syntax, 99 ; abl. ab- 
solute, 72. 

Particles, 3 ; interrogative, 98. 

Passive voice, 24 ; used reflec- 
tively, id. ; formation, 38 ; 
impersonally of neuter verbs, 
44, 65. 

Patronymics, 50. 

pelagus, neuter, 7. 

Pentameter, 115. 

Penalty, 62. 

Penult, 3 ; quantity of, 108. 

per, with living beings (instru- 
ment), 69. 

Perfect tense, 28 ; compared 
with imperfect, 29 ; indefinite 
used for definite, 79. 

Perfect subjunctive, use, 78. 

Periphrastic forms, 44. 

Period, 104. 

Personal pronouns, 20. 

pertaesum est, with gen., 62. 

pefco, used with preposition, 67. 

Pherecratic verse, 117. 

piget, with genitive, 62. 

Place, 74. 

Pluperfect subjunctive, formed, 
38 ; in conditional sentences, 
83 ; in oratio obliqua, 93. 

pluris, genitive of price, 72. 

plus, peculiar use, 71. 



poenitet, with genitive, 62. 

Position, 106. 

posse, 30. 

Possessive adj. pronouns, 21; 
as noun, 55 ; for gen. 21, 56 ; 
with domi, &c, 74. 

post, in expressions of time, 73 ; 
with quam, 77. 

posteaquam (pcstquam), fol- 
lowed by perfect indicative, 
28, 78, 86. 

postridie, with gen., 63; with 
ace, 76. 

postulo, used with prepos., 67. 

Potential subjunctive, 84. 

potior, with abl., 70; with gen., 
63. 

potui, with pres. inf., 79. 

praesens, 30. 

praesertim, strengthening the 
relative, 87. 

Predicate, 53. 

Prepositions, 46 ; syntax, 75 ; 
governing dative in com- 
pounds, 65 ; governing ace. 
in compounds, 67. 

Present subjunctive, in con- 
ditional sentences, 82 ; in 
wishes, 95. 

Present tense, 28 ; historical, 
id., 78 ; with dum, 79. 

pridie, with gen., 63 ; with ace, 
76. 

primum and primo, comp., 46. 

Principal parts of verbs, 38. 

prius, with quam, 77. 

priusquam, with subj., 86. 

pro, in defence of, 64. 

prodesse, 30. 

Prohibitions, 80. 

Pronouns, 20, 23 ; (personal) 
omitted with verbs, 59. 

Pronunciation, 2. 

propior, propius, used like 
prepositions, 76. 

propter, expressing motive, 69. 

Prosody, 105-118. 

protasis, 81. 

proximus and proxime, used 
like prepositions, 76. 



126 



INDEX. 



piidet, with gen., 62. 

quae res, referring to a clause, 
58. 

quaero, with preposition, 67. 

quam, with superlatives, 17 ; 
after comparatives, id. 

quam quam f compared with 
etsi, etc., 85. 

quanivis, with subjunctive, 85. 

quando, 49 ; with subjunctive, 
87. 

quanti, as gen. of price, 72. 

Quantity, 2 ; in Prosody, 105. 

quasi, with subjunctive, 85. 

-que, 47 ; quantity, 106. 

queo, 42. 

Questions, 98 ; indirect, 25, 91; 
in oratio obliqua, 94 ; doubt- 
ful, 84. 

quia, 49 ; with subjunctive, 87. 

quin, with subjunctive, 89 ; non 
quin, 87. 

quippe, strengthening relative, 
87. 

quo, with subjunctive, 88; non 
quo, 87. 

quoad, with subjunctive, 86. 

quod, 49 ; with subjunctive, 
87 ; in substantive clauses, 
9_7. 

quommus, with subjunctive, 
90. 

quoniam, 49 ; with subjunc- 
tive, 87. 

quoque, compared with etiam, 
45. 

quum. — See cum. 

Reduplication, 33; quantity, 
109. 

refert, construction, 63. 

Reflective pronouns, 20 ; verbs, 
24, 68. 

Relative pronouns, 22 ; indefi- 
nite, 23; irt conditional sen- 
tences, 81; correlatives, 23; 
Syntax, 57 ; for the demon- 
strative, 58 ; implying cause, 
87 ; purpose, 88 ; result, 89 ; 
after dignus, etc., 90; after 
general expressions, id. ; after 



quam, id. ; with subjunctive, 
96. 

Rhythm, 105. 

Root, 3. 

rure and ruri, 74. • 

salve, 43. 

Sapphic verse and strophe, 116. 

Scanning, 113. 

scin for scisne, 2. 

sed, compared with at, etc., 48. 

Senarius (iambic), 116. 

Septenarius (trochaic), 118. 

seu. — See sive. 

si, 81. 

sis for si vis, 41. 

sive, compared with aut, etc., 
_48. 

sodes for si audes, 40. 

soleo, 40. 

solus, gen., 15; with subjunc- 
tive, 90. 

Space, measure of, 73. 

Stanza or strophe, 114. 

Stem, 3; of verbs, 32, 39, 40; 

syllables, quantity of, 109. 

sub, 75; in composition, 2. 

Subject, 53 ; clauses, 96. 

Subjunctive mood, 24; exam- 
ples of use, 25 ; general rules, 
80 ; conditional sentences, 
82 ; implied conditions, 84 ; 
after particles, 85 ; temporal 
clauses, 86 ; cause, 87 ; pur- 
pose, 88 ; result, 89 ; inter- 
mediate clauses, 90; indirect 
questions, 91 ; oratio ob- 
liqua, 93 ; wishes, 95 ; rela- 
tive clauses, 96. 

Substantive verb, 53 ; clauses, 
96. 

subter, 76. 

sui, use of, 20. 

siipellex, declension, 11. 

super, 75 ; superlative of adjec- 
tives, 15; use, 17; with 
quam, id. ; denoting a part, 
56. 

Supines, 28; syntax, 101. 

Syllables, division, 2; contrac- 
tion, 2. 



INDEX. 



127 



Synalcepha, 114. 

Synapheia, 114. 

Syncopation, 38. 

Synecdoche, 68. 

Svnesis, 55. 

Syntax, 53-104. 

taedet, with gen., 62. 

tamsn, position, 50. 

tamquam, with subjunctive, 85. 

tanti, as gen. of price, 72. 

Tasting, etc., verbs of, 67. 

Tenses, 28; primary and second- 
ary, 29, 77; formation, 29; 
sequence, 77 ; of completed 
action, 29, 78. 

tenus, 76. 

Tetrameter, 115. 

Thesis, 113. 

Time, 73 ; adverbs of, 76 ; rela- 
tions of, 86 ; Roman reckon- 
ing ofi 119. 

totus, gen., 15. 

trans, compounds of, with two 
accusatives, 67. 

tres, declined, 19. 

Trimeter, 116. 

tui, use of, 20. 

turn and tunc, compared, 45. 

u,l. 

iibi, with perfect indicative, 28, 
78, 86. 

iinus, gen., 15; followed by 
subjunctive, 90. 

usus, followed by abl., 71. 

ut, 30 ; in the sense of although, 
85 ; strengthening relative, 
87 ; purpose, 88 ; after verbs 
of fear, id. ; omitted, id. ; 



meaning how and when, id. ; 
result, 89 ; in substantive 
clauses, 97, 98. 

ut ne, 88. 

uter, gen., 15. 

utor, governing abl., 71. 

utpote, strengthening relative, 
87. 

utrum, 98. 

v, 1. 

vel (ve), compared with sive, 
etc., 48. 

velim and vellem, compared, 
84. 

veliiti, with subjunctive, 85. 

Verbs, 24; paradigms, 34; de- 
ponent, 40 ; derivative, 41 ; 
irregular, id. ; defective, 43 ; 
impersonal, id. ; agreement, 
58 ; syntax, 77 ; of hinder- 
ing, &c, 89. 

vero r position, 50. 

Verse, 113; forms of, 115. 

verum, compared with sed, 
etc., 48. 

vescor, governing abl., 70. 

vestrum and vestri compared, 
20. 

vin' for visile, 2. 

virus, neuter, 7. 

vis, declension, 8. 

Vocative, 5 ; form, 5 ; 2d decl., 
7 ; in l, 8 ; syntax, 68. 

Voices, 24. 

volo, 41. 

Vowels, 1 ; varied, 2 ; quantity, 
2 ; stem of 3d decl., 8. 

vulgus, neuter, 7. 



Cambridge : Press of John Wilson & Son. 



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